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AP Euro/Chapter 11/Chapter 11.md

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+Liam Waldron
+AP Euro
+Chapter 11
+Outline
+
+1 === PRELUDE TO DISASTER ===
+
+== CLIMATE CHANGE AND FAMINE ==
+From 1000 to 1300, Europe's climate was warmer than usual
+Around 1300, climate became colder and wetter, referrred to as a "little ice age"
+	- Verifiable through tree rings, glaciers, and pollen
+Consequences of colder climate:
+	- Freezing rivers
+	- Failing crops and poor harvests
+	- Collapse of the Viking's Greenland Colony
+	- More severe weather
+	- Famine (1315-1322)
+	- Rising prices of grain, livestock, and dairy
+	- People more vulnerable to disease
+
+== SOCIAL CONSEQUENCES ==
+Many homesteads and even entire villages were abandoned, especially in the Low Countries and along the England-Scotland border
+Poorer farmers were forced to sell property to richer farmers to afford food
+Delayment in marriage due to young people seeking work
+The anger of the population was focused on the rich and Jews
+Many conspired and killed Jews, after rumors spread of Jews poisoning wells to kill off Christians.
+English Sheep were affected by an infection in 1318, causing a massive decline in international exports of wool
+	- Flemish woolworkers were laid off
+	- Merchants were unable to buy woolen products
+	- Rise in crime
+Government responses ineffective
+
+2 === THE BLACK DEATH ===
+
+== INTRO ==
+
+Around 1300s, year round shipping became feasible
+Merchants used these ships to ship cargo
+Consequently, these ships also carried rats which spread disease
+
+== PATHOLOGY ==
+
+Bacterium responsible for causing the bubonic plague - Yersinia Pestis
+Transmission:
+	1: Fleas living on infected rats drank the blood from the rats
+	2: Fleas pass on bacteria to the next rat they bite
+
+Plague did not infect humans unless there was a shortage of hosts
+When massive die-offs of rats happened, the fleas would transmit the disease to humans
+
+First known major plague outbreak: sixth century in the Eastern Roman Empire
+Most recent major plague outbreak: nineteenth century in India and China
+
+19th century and 14th century outbreaks had some differences, leading historians to speculate on whether they were different strains or completely different diseases
+
+Symptoms:
+	Painful black growth (bubo) about the size of an apple, in the armpit, groin area, or neck
+	Black spots caused by internal bleeding under the skin (these did not give the plague its name)
+	Intense coughing and discharge of blood from mouth
+	Death
+
+== SPREAD OF THE DISEASE ==
+
+The plague emerged in Western China, then a part of the Mongol Empire
+Infected rats were abled to travel long distances through Mongol armies and traveling merchants
+These rats then hid on ships traveling to the Black Sea
+Black Sea port cities were infected by the 1340s
+Mongol armies besieging Kaffa catapulted infected corpses over the walls of the city, and while residents attempted to dispose of the bodies before they got infected, it was ultimately futile
+October 1347, Genoese ships conducting trade between Kaffa and Messina transmitted the plague, spreading it to Sicily, where it then moved to Venice and Genoa by the beginning of 1348
+By way of the port of Pisa, the disease spread to Central and Southern Italy
+The plague spread to Germany the same year
+Through Marseilles, the plague spread to Southern France and Spain
+June 1348, the Plague spread to England and Scandinavia through 2 ships
+The plague spread eastward by land into Poland and Central Europe
+
+Conditions in medieval cities were appalling, which gave the plague many additional vectors to spread. Excrement, animal carcasses, and trash were common in streets
+People were left weak by famine, hygiene standards were low, and cities were overcrowded.
+Fleas affected everyone, and thus people were not worried about being bitten. An association between the plague, fleas, and rats had not been made.
+Some cities were spared by the plague, because they stockpiled food and locked the gates to outsiders. Ex: Milan, Liege, Nuremberg
+As many as 500 and 600 died per day in Vienna, according to a Chronicler
+Emigrants escaping the plague in the Holy Roman Empire spread the plague eastward towards Poland, Bohemia, and Hungary
+The plague killed the youngest son of the Byzantine emperor John VI Kantakouzenous
+The Black Death recurred intermittenly from 1360 to 1400
+Many cities experienced outbreaks centuries later, with the last European outbreak being Marseilles
+
+== CARE OF THE SICK ==
+
+People understood person to person transmission
+Physicians believed that the air was "corrupted" or "poisoned", and that this air was the primary cause of infection
+Treatments included:
+	Ringing church bells or firing cannons to clear poisons from the air
+	Plant based treatments, such as from plants that oozed, were believed to keep the dangerous oozing of the plague away
+	Cryptograms helped people pray and gave a sense of order
+Although people were critical of the clergy at the time, they regularly cared for the sick, and buried the dead
+Due to this, the death rate of the clergy was extremely high
+To avoid sickness, the wealthy fled the cities, which spread the plague even more
+Many cities attempted to lock down before the plague reached them, this worked in a few areas
+According to Giovanni Boccaccio, "Almost no one cared for his neighbor...brother abandoned brother...and - even worse, almost unbelievable - fathers and mothers neglected to tend and care for their children"
+
+== ECONOMIC, RELIGIOUS, AND CULTURAL EFFECTS ==
+
+The high death toll allowed less fertile farmland to be abandoned
+People moved to more specialized forms of agriculture, which proved to be a better use of the land in the long run
+THe plague brought about inflation in Europe
+Fall in production
+Prices on goods such as meat, sausage, and cheese increased
+Labor shortages, which allowed workers to demand better wafes
+Higher standard of living for survivors
+Greater mobility for peasants and artisans
+People who sought release from affliction became more pious
+Many people believed the plague was a punishment from God for their sins, the best remedies were prayer, asking for forgiveness, and living better lives
+In Constantinople, many of the sick avoided vice, and pursued virtue
+Many people divided their land among the poor
+Muslims encouraged people to give to the poor, make amends with your enemies, free slaves, and say goodbye to loved ones
+Many Christians joined flagellant groups, who scourged themselves as penance for sins
+They were barred from entering cities due to concerns from authorities
+Thousands of Jews were murdered across Europe because people believed they were spreading the plague to their towns
+Literature reveals that people were afraid of death
+Many new universities were established
+International character of the medieval culture weakened, creating conditions for schism
+
+3 === THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR ===
+
+== CAUSES ==
+
+- Disagreements over land rights
+- DIspute over succession to the French throne
+- Economic conflict
+
+Many of these conflicts revolved around Aquitaine
+Aquitaine became an English holding after Elanor of Aquitaine married King Henry II
+Henry III signed the Treaty of Paris with Louis IX, affirming English claims over the duchy, while allowing it to become a vassal of France
+France wanted to absorb the province into their kingdom, therefore it became disputed territory
+
+Immediate cause of the war was conflict over who would inherit the French throne after Charles IV died with no heir
+Charles IV had a sister named Isabella, whose son was Edward III of England
+An assembly of French Nobles forbade Isabella and Edward from taking the throne, saying "no woman nor her son could succeed to the monarchy"
+They claimed this was foundational to French Law
+Edward was barred from the French throne
+The ban on female successipn was in place until the French Revolution
+The crown was passed onto Philip VI
+1329 - Edward III formally recognized the lordship of Philip VI over Aquitaine
+1337 - Philip VI revoked the duchy, Edward III saw this as a violation of the 1259 treaty and cause for war
+Edward claimed that as the eldest descendent of Philip the Fair, he deserved the French throne
+This upset feudal order in France and caused many nobles to abandon Philip VI
+One of the reasons the war was so long was that it became a civil war within France, between the ENglish-loyal dukes of Burgundy
+Scotland often allied with France because they both hated England
+Both governments manipulated their populations in order to support the war
+
+The English population believed:
+	The war was waged to secure the throne for Edward III
+	That Edward had been wrongfully denied the throne
+
+England sent letters to sherrifs describing the evil deeds of France
+Philip VI warned villages of invasion
+Both countries ordered clergy to give patriotic sermons
+An early form of nationalism developed during this time
+Political issues were tied to economic factors, especially the wool trade between Flanders and England
+Both countries relied heavily on this trade
+Flanders was technically a French holding, and the aristocracy was sympathetic towards France
+Flemish Burghers were sympathetic towards England, as their livelihood depended on the wool trade
+The war was an opportunity for economic success for some people
+Poor knights were promised normal wages, criminals were given pardons if they enlisted, and soldiers were told that if they won, they could seize anything they wished
+
+== ENGLISH SUCCESSES ==
+
+The war opened with French raids on English coastal towns in 1337, but the French fleet was decisively defeated when they attempted to land troops
+The war from this point on was fought mostly in France and the Low Countries
+These battles were mainly random sieges and cavalry raids
+Many treaties were signed along the way to halt hostilities
+England was very successful in the early years of the war
+In 1346, at Crecy in Northern France, English longbowmen defeated French Knights and crossbowmen
+Longbowmen held the advantage of speed, while not being very accurate, they could reload very rapidly
+This rain of arrows confused and threw French knights off their horses
+The cannon caused panic among French troops, and is likely the first use of artillery in the Western world
+This war did not follow Edward III's chivalric rules
+Edward's son, the Black Prince, used these same tactics nevertheless to destroy the French at Poitiers
+England could not capture all of France, but held large swaths of territory, including Aquitaine, and allied with French nobility
+At this time, there was a brief peace, with France reconquering some of its territory afterwards
+Both sides signed a treaty in the 1380s to deal with problems back home
+The war kicked off again in 1415 when King Henry V of England invaded France
+Henry's more skilled army defeated a larger French army at Agincourt, primary with the help of English longbowmen
+Henry then reconquered Normandy
+By 1419, the English army had reached Paris, where Henry married the daughter of the French King
+A treaty made Henry and his descendents the automatic heirs to the French throne
+Henry died abruptly, leaving his infant son as heir
+The English continued to win the war and besieged Orleans, the last remaining major city
+
+== JOAN OF ARC ==
+
+The French success relied on a French peasant girl, Joan of Arc
+Born in 1412, she grew up in a devoutly religious household
+She began to hear voices which she claimed belonged to Saint Michael, Saint Catherine, and Saint Margaret
+These voices told her in 1428 that Charles VII must be crowned king of France and the English must be kicked out
+She travelled to a French court wearing male clothing, where she was questioned on her visions
+She then secured support to travel with the French Army to Orleans, she then sent a letter to the English ordering their surrender
+When the English did not heed this warning, Joan lead the French Army through multiple victories, which led to tne English abandoning Orleans
+Joan became co-commander of the French Army, which she led into even more victories
+Some cities surrendered without a fight
+Charles VII was crowned King of France at Reims
+Joan was captured in 1430 by the Burgundians, Charles refused to ransom her, therefore she was sold to the English
+A pro-English bishop tried Joan for heresy, and she was burned at the stake
+Nevertheless, France continued to pursue victory without her
+Burgundy switched loyalty to France after sensing a shift in the tides of war
+They then reconquered Normandy and Aquitaine
+Both sides demanded the war's end due to massive loss of life and money
+Joan of Arc was cleared of heresy charges and declared a martyr after a new trial was requested by Charles VII
+
+== AFTERMATH ==
+
+Thousands, both soldiers and civilians had died, and hundreds of thousands of acres of farmland had been ruined
+Trade was severely disrupted and the French international economy suffered
+Peasants were unhappy with high rates of taxation
+England spent 5 Million Pounds on the war, which was a huge financial loss
+Wool was priced out of the export market due to taxes
+Many on both sides had sought to become rich through serving in the war, but this wealth was quickly squandered
+Social order at home was disrupted because many knights who had served as sherrifs were serving overseas
+The war brought about technological advancements, such as the use of the cannon, which:
+	- Made castles no longer impregnable
+	- Strenghened nation states because only governments could afford cannons
+The war saw the development of the English parliament
+	While many countries had representative assemblies, they all died down in the 15th century, unlike the English parliament
+Parliament in 37 of the 50 years Edward was king
+Meetings were becoming more frequent
+New taxes required parliamentary approval
+A national assembly failed to develop in France due to strong differences, including (but not limited to) linguistic, and geographic, within the nation
+Provincial assemblies wamted to stay independent and thus did not want a national assembly
+Some monarchs did not have the power to call assemblies, and in the case of Charles VI, he thoroughly disliked them
+The war promoted a growth of nationalism
+
+4 === CHALLENGES TO THE CHURCH ===
+
+In times of need, many turned to religion, however many clergy were more concerned with worldly matters
+Many members of the clergy challanged the power of the papacy and many laypeople challenged the authority of the church itself
+People directly approached God rather than relying on the church
+
+== THE BABYLONIAN CAPTIVITY AND GREAT SCHISM ==
+
+During the middle ages, conflicts between secular leaders and the popes were normal
+Philip the Fair and Boniface VIII developed a rivalry
+After Boniface's death, Philip pressured Clement V, the new pope, to move papal authority to Avignon in Souther France, in order to control church policy
+The pope lived in Avignon from 1309 to 1376, a period known as the Babylonian Captivity
+Papal reputation was severely damaged by the Captivity
+Church leadership was cut off from its source of authority and roots
+Pope Gregory XI returned the Papacy to Rome, but died shortly after
+There was pressure to elect an Italian pope, and Bartolomeo Prignano, archbishop of Bari, was chosen, where he took the name Urban VI
+Urban wanted to reform the church, but executed it poorly
+He denounced clerical luxury, individual cardinals, and threatened excommunication
+These cardinals met and declared Urban's election invalid and excommunicated him
+Cardinal Robert of Geneva, Pope Clement VII was elected
+There were two popes at this point, Urban in Rome and Clement in Avignon
+This began the Great Schism, which divided Western Christianity until 1417
+The nations of Europe aligned with either Rome or Avignon, along political lines. For example, England supported Urban because France, their rivalsm supported Clement
+John of Spoleto said that the longer the schism lasts, the more harm it does
+The schism severely harmed the reputation of church leadership
+
+== CRITIQUES, DIVISIONS, AND COUNCILS ==
+
+Criticism of the church during this time came from highly intellectual clergy and professional laypeople
+One of these laypeople, William of Occamm was highly critical of the papacy, disconnected faith and reason, argued for limited government power and separation of church and state.
+Marsiglio of Padua claimed the state was the great unifying power and the church should submit to it, church leadership should lie in a council
+Marsiglio was excommunicated and deemed a heretic
+Despite this, many agreed with him, these people were called conciliarists
+John Wyclif, an English theologian, argued for Scripture alone, and claimed that the papacy had no basis in Scripture
+Wyclif completed the first English translation of the Bible
+His followers, called Lollards, spread his ideas and made copies of his translation of the Bible
+Lollards were persecuted, executed, and forced into hiding
+Bohemian Students brought the ideas of Wyclif to Prauge after studying at Oxford University
+The theologian Jan Hus expanded these ideas, he demanded translations of the Bible into Czech, and declared indulgences useless
+This was linked with growing Czech nationalism against the Pope
+Hus' followers, Hussites, were successful in repelling the Pope's armies, and the Holy Roman Empire finally recognized the Church's legitimacy
+The Hussite Church survived the reformation and merged into other churches
+The Schism still threatened the church, and a council was called at Pisa in 1409
+The theologians at the council deposed both popes, but neither resigned, thus a three-sided schism was created
+German Emperor Sigismund called a council at Constance, which aimed to do the following:
+	- End schism
+	- Wipe out heresy
+	- Reform the church
+This council included  cardinals, bishops, abbots, and theologians
+Results:
+	- Jan Hus was condemned a heretic and burned at the stake
+	- Both popes were finally deposed, and Martin V was chosen
+The council was dissolved before reform could take place, which laid the foundations for the protestant reformation
+
+== LAY PIETY AND MYSTICISM ==
+
+The Avignon Papacy and the Schism weakened the spiritual mystique of the clergy, and many laypeople had found their own ways to become pious
+Laypeople had formed confraternities, some of which had specified in praying for souls in purgatory, hosting church festivals, and raised money for the upkeep of churches
+Separate womens confraternities oversaw production of fabric items for churches
+A group in Holland called the Bretheren and Sisters of the Common Life lived simple lives while feeding the hungry, clothing the naked, and visiting the sick.
+"The Imitation of Christ" urged people to make Christ a model for their lives
+For all people, clergy included, mystical experiences were part of religious devotion
+Bridget of Sweden was a noble woman who made a pilgrimage to Rome after her husband's death, had visions and gave advice to laypeople and clergy
+She made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem at the end of her life, when she had visions of Mary describing what it was like giving birth to Jesus
+Conraternities were not considered heretical unless they challenged church authority like Hus, Wyclif, and the conciliarists
+
+5 == SOCIAL UNREST IN A CHANGING SOCIETY ==
+
+MAIN POINT: Peasants were frusturated with lack of work, high taxes, and crime, and turned to revolt as a solution
+
+== PEASANT REVOLTS ==
+
+Nobles had lived off of peasant labor while not thinking twice of adding taxes to the burden
+Peasants endured severe exploitation for centuries, but the difficult conditions of the 14th and 15th centuries sparked revolt
+The first major rebellion was in Flanders, because:
+	- Flemish peasants were forced to pay high taxes to the French after the Hundred Years' War, because France claimed fiscal rights over the nation
+	- Monasteries demanded money from peasants
+The peasants sacked castles and countryside mansions, but were stopped by the French Army, and a brutal retaliation followed
+More riots broke out elsewhere, such as the Jacqueire in France, led by Jacques Bonhomme
+Peasants blamed nobles for high taxes, crime, death toll from the war, and poor conditions in general
+Revolts were extremely violent, they killed nobles, assaulted their wives and daughters, burned their castles and killed their livestock and horses
+Artisans and merchants joined the peasants
+The upper class then suppressed the rebellion with full force, driving it undergrounc
+English peasants demanded more wages and less manorial obligations, due to a cut in labor supply after the Black Death
+The King froze wages and bound workers to their manors, this was unenforcable, however
+Main factors in England that contributed to rebellion:
+	- French raids during the Hundred Years' War
+	- Lack of protection from the government
+	- Aristocratic violence against peasants
+	- Social and religious agitation
+Main cause of rebellion in England: A tax on all adult males to pay for the war
+	This tax was very unpopular. Despite this, the royal council ordered sheriffs to collect these taxes forcefully
+People involved:
+	Peasants
+	Urban artisans
+	Rural residents
+The rebellion began with attacks on the tax collectors, then followed the course of the Jacqueire
+Many nobles were murdered, including the Archbishop of Canterbury
+Rebellion was primary in the south and east, although conflict did occur in the north
+
+King Richard II met the leaders of the rebellion, made false promises, then suppressed the rebellion with full force
+The nobility attempted to restore serfdom, but failed, and serfdom eventually disappeared in England by 1550
+
+== URBAN CONFLICTS ==
+
+In Flanders, France, and England, peasant revolts mixed with workers conflicts in cities
+These urban revolts had their roots in changing nature and conditions of labor
+13th century:
+	Craft guilds organized production
+14th century:
+	A new system, capitalism, was designed to support mass production
+
+Overview of capitalism:
+	Investors hired households to perform one step of the process
+	(Investors initially wealthy bankers and merchants, but eventually became shop keepers)
+This new system promoted division within the guilds, their wealthy masters, and poor masters and journeymen hired by the richer masters
+Some masters did not need to work in shops anymore because they became so wealthy
+Capitalism, while it provided many opportunities, it also led to a decrease in income for some
+Guilds sometimes opened membership, but they more likely limited membership to existing families
+This meant that journeymen who were not the sons of masters, or who could not find a master's daughter or widow to marry, could not become masters
+Remaining journeymen lost solidarity with the masters of their craft, this resentment led to rebellion
+Uprisings in cities were also caused by honor-related issues, such as ordering workers to do tasks regarded as beneath them
+Guilds tied honor as tied to an all male workplace
+	When the economies of cities were expanding in the High Middle Ages, the master's wife and daughters worked alongside him, as well as female servants
+	A master's widow would run his shop after his death
+However, in the 14th century, women's participation in guilds dropped, even after the labor shortage caused by the plague
+
+== SEX IN THE CITY ==
+
+Marital patterns may have had correlations to peasant and urban revolts
+In Northwestern Europe, people believed a couple should be financially independent before marriage, not only in times of crisis, but in general
+During this time period, women married older than they had historically, as a result:
+	She was not dependent on her husband as much as a younger woman would be
+	She had less pregnancies (not necessarily fewer surviving children"
+Men always tended to be older than the women they married, usually in their mid to late twenties, with wealthier men much older
+Journeymen, apprentices, and university students were prohibited from marrying
+These prohibitions meant cities and villages were full of unmarried men, who had no responsibilities, and often caused riots and unrest
+This contributed to sexual services outside of marriage - prostitution
+Many cities in France set up legal houses of prostitution, which were regulated
+Visiting brothels was associated among young men with achieving manhood
+Poor women often went into sex work as a way to make money
+While prostitution was legal, there were many regulations on prostitutes themselves, being required to wear certain clothing, restrictions on movement, etc
+A few women were able to buy property, but most were poor
+Men frequently took sex by force, where unmarried women found it hard to avoid sexual contact
+There were little protections in place for female servants or day laborers
+Same-sex relationshipss were another component of medieval life
+Homosexuality was of little concern to the church or state in the early middle ages, but this changed around 1300, with defined laws such as "crimes against nature"
+Same-sex relationships were termed sodomy, and it became a capital crime in most of the continent, with execution by fire threatened
+A couple cities created special courts to deal with sodomy
+Between 1432 and 1502, 17,000 men came to the attention of the court in Florence
+Almost all cases involved an adult male and an adolescent boy
+Many of these relationships developed in all male environments
+
+== FUR COLLAR CRIME ==
+
+Due to inflation, many nobles turned to crime to raise money
+These crimes involved violence and fraud
+Examples:
+	- Knightly gangs demanded peasants pay protection money or else their property would be burned down
+	- They heald wealthy travelers for ransom
+	- Corrupt landowners pushed for higher taxes
+	- Intimidation of witnesses
+	- Threatening of jurors
+	- Persuasion
+	- Bribes
+
+Fur collar crimes led to revolt, but also inspired popular culture
+Robin Hood is a prime example of this
+
+== ETHNIC TENSIONS AND RESTRICTIONS ==
+
+People from all across Europe migrated to different countries in search of work, land, and food
+People of all different ethnic backgrounds lived alongside each other
+In most places, native people were subject to their traditional laws, wheread foreigners were subject to the laws of wherever they had come from
+The great exception to this was Ireland, where the English discriminated against the native Irish from the start
+Irish people:
+	- Were deemed "unfree" from birth
+	- Were denied access to the common law courts
+	- Could be murdered and no felony charges would be brought against the killer
+In other places, people prospered from the growing economies of the 14th century, ethnic tensions also rose
+The legal dualism system was done away with in the late Middle Ages, and homogeneity was put in place, with blood descent emplasized.
+The dominant ethnic group of an area barred foreigners from opportunities
+The Statute of Kilkenny forbade the marriage between an Irish and British person, forbade use of the Irish language, forced name changes, among other things
+People began referring to nation of origin as "blood", this emerged after the Hundred Years' war
+This expanded into religion ("Christian blood") and nobility ("Noble blood")
+
+== LITERACY AND VERNACULAR LITERATURE ==
+
+Ethnic tensions encouraged the use of vernacular, rather than Latin
+The use of vernacular encouraged the writing of Dante's Divine Comedy and Chaucer's Canterbury Takles
+The Divine Comedy is a poem describing the narrator's journey through hell, purgatory, and eventually into heaven, containing criticism of church authority
+Canterbury Tales is a collection of short stories where a group of pilgrims journey to Canterbury to pay homage to Thomas Becket
+Both of these works show cultural tensions
+
+The beginning of the 14th century saw increasing literacy for laypeople
+Schools quadrupled within the Diocese of York in England between 1350 and 1500
+Children in Flanders and Germany learned basic reading, writing, and math at school
+Laymen more often served as clerks and managers
+Laymen also adopted government positions more frequently, a clear sign of increasing literacy
+The upper class sent their daughters to convent schools, where they learned the basics of religious and home life
+Society was shifting from an oral culture to a written culture