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 Liam Waldron
 AP Euro
 Chapter 11
 Outline
 1 === PRELUDE TO DISASTER ===
 == CLIMATE CHANGE AND FAMINE ==
 From 1000 to 1300, Europe's climate was warmer than usual
 Around 1300, climate became colder and wetter, referrred to as a "little ice age"
 	- Verifiable through tree rings, glaciers, and pollen
 Consequences of colder climate:
 	- Freezing rivers
 	- Failing crops and poor harvests
 	- Collapse of the Viking's Greenland Colony
 	- More severe weather
 	- Famine (1315-1322)
 	- Rising prices of grain, livestock, and dairy
 	- People more vulnerable to disease
 == SOCIAL CONSEQUENCES ==
 Many homesteads and even entire villages were abandoned, especially in the Low Countries and along the England-Scotland border
 Poorer farmers were forced to sell property to richer farmers to afford food
 Delayment in marriage due to young people seeking work
 The anger of the population was focused on the rich and Jews
 Many conspired and killed Jews, after rumors spread of Jews poisoning wells to kill off Christians.
 English Sheep were affected by an infection in 1318, causing a massive decline in international exports of wool
 	- Flemish woolworkers were laid off
 	- Merchants were unable to buy woolen products
 	- Rise in crime
 Government responses ineffective
 2 === THE BLACK DEATH ===
 == INTRO ==
 Around 1300s, year round shipping became feasible
 Merchants used these ships to ship cargo
 Consequently, these ships also carried rats which spread disease
 == PATHOLOGY ==
 Bacterium responsible for causing the bubonic plague - Yersinia Pestis
 Transmission:
 	1: Fleas living on infected rats drank the blood from the rats
 	2: Fleas pass on bacteria to the next rat they bite
 Plague did not infect humans unless there was a shortage of hosts
 When massive die-offs of rats happened, the fleas would transmit the disease to humans
 First known major plague outbreak: sixth century in the Eastern Roman Empire
 Most recent major plague outbreak: nineteenth century in India and China
 19th century and 14th century outbreaks had some differences, leading historians to speculate on whether they were different strains or completely different diseases
 Symptoms:
 	Painful black growth (bubo) about the size of an apple, in the armpit, groin area, or neck
 	Black spots caused by internal bleeding under the skin (these did not give the plague its name)
 	Intense coughing and discharge of blood from mouth
 	Death
 == SPREAD OF THE DISEASE ==
 The plague emerged in Western China, then a part of the Mongol Empire
 Infected rats were abled to travel long distances through Mongol armies and traveling merchants
 These rats then hid on ships traveling to the Black Sea
 Black Sea port cities were infected by the 1340s
 Mongol armies besieging Kaffa catapulted infected corpses over the walls of the city, and while residents attempted to dispose of the bodies before they got infected, it was ultimately futile
 October 1347, Genoese ships conducting trade between Kaffa and Messina transmitted the plague, spreading it to Sicily, where it then moved to Venice and Genoa by the beginning of 1348
 By way of the port of Pisa, the disease spread to Central and Southern Italy
 The plague spread to Germany the same year
 Through Marseilles, the plague spread to Southern France and Spain
 June 1348, the Plague spread to England and Scandinavia through 2 ships
 The plague spread eastward by land into Poland and Central Europe
 Conditions in medieval cities were appalling, which gave the plague many additional vectors to spread. Excrement, animal carcasses, and trash were common in streets
 People were left weak by famine, hygiene standards were low, and cities were overcrowded.
 Fleas affected everyone, and thus people were not worried about being bitten. An association between the plague, fleas, and rats had not been made.
 Some cities were spared by the plague, because they stockpiled food and locked the gates to outsiders. Ex: Milan, Liege, Nuremberg
 As many as 500 and 600 died per day in Vienna, according to a Chronicler
 Emigrants escaping the plague in the Holy Roman Empire spread the plague eastward towards Poland, Bohemia, and Hungary
 The plague killed the youngest son of the Byzantine emperor John VI Kantakouzenous
 The Black Death recurred intermittenly from 1360 to 1400
 Many cities experienced outbreaks centuries later, with the last European outbreak being Marseilles
 == CARE OF THE SICK ==
 People understood person to person transmission
 Physicians believed that the air was "corrupted" or "poisoned", and that this air was the primary cause of infection
 Treatments included:
 	Ringing church bells or firing cannons to clear poisons from the air
 	Plant based treatments, such as from plants that oozed, were believed to keep the dangerous oozing of the plague away
 	Cryptograms helped people pray and gave a sense of order
 Although people were critical of the clergy at the time, they regularly cared for the sick, and buried the dead
 Due to this, the death rate of the clergy was extremely high
 To avoid sickness, the wealthy fled the cities, which spread the plague even more
 Many cities attempted to lock down before the plague reached them, this worked in a few areas
 According to Giovanni Boccaccio, "Almost no one cared for his neighbor...brother abandoned brother...and - even worse, almost unbelievable - fathers and mothers neglected to tend and care for their children"
 == ECONOMIC, RELIGIOUS, AND CULTURAL EFFECTS ==
 The high death toll allowed less fertile farmland to be abandoned
 People moved to more specialized forms of agriculture, which proved to be a better use of the land in the long run
 THe plague brought about inflation in Europe
 Fall in production
 Prices on goods such as meat, sausage, and cheese increased
 Labor shortages, which allowed workers to demand better wafes
 Higher standard of living for survivors
 Greater mobility for peasants and artisans
 People who sought release from affliction became more pious
 Many people believed the plague was a punishment from God for their sins, the best remedies were prayer, asking for forgiveness, and living better lives
 In Constantinople, many of the sick avoided vice, and pursued virtue
 Many people divided their land among the poor
 Muslims encouraged people to give to the poor, make amends with your enemies, free slaves, and say goodbye to loved ones
 Many Christians joined flagellant groups, who scourged themselves as penance for sins
 They were barred from entering cities due to concerns from authorities
 Thousands of Jews were murdered across Europe because people believed they were spreading the plague to their towns
 Literature reveals that people were afraid of death
 Many new universities were established
 International character of the medieval culture weakened, creating conditions for schism
 3 === THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR ===
 == CAUSES ==
 - Disagreements over land rights
 - DIspute over succession to the French throne
 - Economic conflict
 Many of these conflicts revolved around Aquitaine
 Aquitaine became an English holding after Elanor of Aquitaine married King Henry II
 Henry III signed the Treaty of Paris with Louis IX, affirming English claims over the duchy, while allowing it to become a vassal of France
 France wanted to absorb the province into their kingdom, therefore it became disputed territory
 Immediate cause of the war was conflict over who would inherit the French throne after Charles IV died with no heir
 Charles IV had a sister named Isabella, whose son was Edward III of England
 An assembly of French Nobles forbade Isabella and Edward from taking the throne, saying "no woman nor her son could succeed to the monarchy"
 They claimed this was foundational to French Law
 Edward was barred from the French throne
 The ban on female successipn was in place until the French Revolution
 The crown was passed onto Philip VI
 1329 - Edward III formally recognized the lordship of Philip VI over Aquitaine
 1337 - Philip VI revoked the duchy, Edward III saw this as a violation of the 1259 treaty and cause for war
 Edward claimed that as the eldest descendent of Philip the Fair, he deserved the French throne
 This upset feudal order in France and caused many nobles to abandon Philip VI
 One of the reasons the war was so long was that it became a civil war within France, between the ENglish-loyal dukes of Burgundy
 Scotland often allied with France because they both hated England
 Both governments manipulated their populations in order to support the war
 The English population believed:
 	The war was waged to secure the throne for Edward III
 	That Edward had been wrongfully denied the throne
 England sent letters to sherrifs describing the evil deeds of France
 Philip VI warned villages of invasion
 Both countries ordered clergy to give patriotic sermons
 An early form of nationalism developed during this time
 Political issues were tied to economic factors, especially the wool trade between Flanders and England
 Both countries relied heavily on this trade
 Flanders was technically a French holding, and the aristocracy was sympathetic towards France
 Flemish Burghers were sympathetic towards England, as their livelihood depended on the wool trade
 The war was an opportunity for economic success for some people
 Poor knights were promised normal wages, criminals were given pardons if they enlisted, and soldiers were told that if they won, they could seize anything they wished
 == ENGLISH SUCCESSES ==
 The war opened with French raids on English coastal towns in 1337, but the French fleet was decisively defeated when they attempted to land troops
 The war from this point on was fought mostly in France and the Low Countries
 These battles were mainly random sieges and cavalry raids
 Many treaties were signed along the way to halt hostilities
 England was very successful in the early years of the war
 In 1346, at Crecy in Northern France, English longbowmen defeated French Knights and crossbowmen
 Longbowmen held the advantage of speed, while not being very accurate, they could reload very rapidly
 This rain of arrows confused and threw French knights off their horses
 The cannon caused panic among French troops, and is likely the first use of artillery in the Western world
 This war did not follow Edward III's chivalric rules
 Edward's son, the Black Prince, used these same tactics nevertheless to destroy the French at Poitiers
 England could not capture all of France, but held large swaths of territory, including Aquitaine, and allied with French nobility
 At this time, there was a brief peace, with France reconquering some of its territory afterwards
 Both sides signed a treaty in the 1380s to deal with problems back home
 The war kicked off again in 1415 when King Henry V of England invaded France
 Henry's more skilled army defeated a larger French army at Agincourt, primary with the help of English longbowmen
 Henry then reconquered Normandy
 By 1419, the English army had reached Paris, where Henry married the daughter of the French King
 A treaty made Henry and his descendents the automatic heirs to the French throne
 Henry died abruptly, leaving his infant son as heir
 The English continued to win the war and besieged Orleans, the last remaining major city
 == JOAN OF ARC ==
 The French success relied on a French peasant girl, Joan of Arc
 Born in 1412, she grew up in a devoutly religious household
 She began to hear voices which she claimed belonged to Saint Michael, Saint Catherine, and Saint Margaret
 These voices told her in 1428 that Charles VII must be crowned king of France and the English must be kicked out
 She travelled to a French court wearing male clothing, where she was questioned on her visions
 She then secured support to travel with the French Army to Orleans, she then sent a letter to the English ordering their surrender
 When the English did not heed this warning, Joan lead the French Army through multiple victories, which led to tne English abandoning Orleans
 Joan became co-commander of the French Army, which she led into even more victories
 Some cities surrendered without a fight
 Charles VII was crowned King of France at Reims
 Joan was captured in 1430 by the Burgundians, Charles refused to ransom her, therefore she was sold to the English
 A pro-English bishop tried Joan for heresy, and she was burned at the stake
 Nevertheless, France continued to pursue victory without her
 Burgundy switched loyalty to France after sensing a shift in the tides of war
 They then reconquered Normandy and Aquitaine
 Both sides demanded the war's end due to massive loss of life and money
 Joan of Arc was cleared of heresy charges and declared a martyr after a new trial was requested by Charles VII
 == AFTERMATH ==
 Thousands, both soldiers and civilians had died, and hundreds of thousands of acres of farmland had been ruined
 Trade was severely disrupted and the French international economy suffered
 Peasants were unhappy with high rates of taxation
 England spent 5 Million Pounds on the war, which was a huge financial loss
 Wool was priced out of the export market due to taxes
 Many on both sides had sought to become rich through serving in the war, but this wealth was quickly squandered
 Social order at home was disrupted because many knights who had served as sherrifs were serving overseas
 The war brought about technological advancements, such as the use of the cannon, which:
 	- Made castles no longer impregnable
 	- Strenghened nation states because only governments could afford cannons
 The war saw the development of the English parliament
 	While many countries had representative assemblies, they all died down in the 15th century, unlike the English parliament
 Parliament in 37 of the 50 years Edward was king
 Meetings were becoming more frequent
 New taxes required parliamentary approval
 A national assembly failed to develop in France due to strong differences, including (but not limited to) linguistic, and geographic, within the nation
 Provincial assemblies wamted to stay independent and thus did not want a national assembly
 Some monarchs did not have the power to call assemblies, and in the case of Charles VI, he thoroughly disliked them
 The war promoted a growth of nationalism
 4 === CHALLENGES TO THE CHURCH ===
 In times of need, many turned to religion, however many clergy were more concerned with worldly matters
 Many members of the clergy challanged the power of the papacy and many laypeople challenged the authority of the church itself
 People directly approached God rather than relying on the church
 == THE BABYLONIAN CAPTIVITY AND GREAT SCHISM ==
 During the middle ages, conflicts between secular leaders and the popes were normal
 Philip the Fair and Boniface VIII developed a rivalry
 After Boniface's death, Philip pressured Clement V, the new pope, to move papal authority to Avignon in Souther France, in order to control church policy
 The pope lived in Avignon from 1309 to 1376, a period known as the Babylonian Captivity
 Papal reputation was severely damaged by the Captivity
 Church leadership was cut off from its source of authority and roots
 Pope Gregory XI returned the Papacy to Rome, but died shortly after
 There was pressure to elect an Italian pope, and Bartolomeo Prignano, archbishop of Bari, was chosen, where he took the name Urban VI
 Urban wanted to reform the church, but executed it poorly
 He denounced clerical luxury, individual cardinals, and threatened excommunication
 These cardinals met and declared Urban's election invalid and excommunicated him
 Cardinal Robert of Geneva, Pope Clement VII was elected
 There were two popes at this point, Urban in Rome and Clement in Avignon
 This began the Great Schism, which divided Western Christianity until 1417
 The nations of Europe aligned with either Rome or Avignon, along political lines. For example, England supported Urban because France, their rivalsm supported Clement
 John of Spoleto said that the longer the schism lasts, the more harm it does
 The schism severely harmed the reputation of church leadership
 == CRITIQUES, DIVISIONS, AND COUNCILS ==
 Criticism of the church during this time came from highly intellectual clergy and professional laypeople
 One of these laypeople, William of Occamm was highly critical of the papacy, disconnected faith and reason, argued for limited government power and separation of church and state.
 Marsiglio of Padua claimed the state was the great unifying power and the church should submit to it, church leadership should lie in a council
 Marsiglio was excommunicated and deemed a heretic
 Despite this, many agreed with him, these people were called conciliarists
 John Wyclif, an English theologian, argued for Scripture alone, and claimed that the papacy had no basis in Scripture
 Wyclif completed the first English translation of the Bible
 His followers, called Lollards, spread his ideas and made copies of his translation of the Bible
 Lollards were persecuted, executed, and forced into hiding
 Bohemian Students brought the ideas of Wyclif to Prauge after studying at Oxford University
 The theologian Jan Hus expanded these ideas, he demanded translations of the Bible into Czech, and declared indulgences useless
 This was linked with growing Czech nationalism against the Pope
 Hus' followers, Hussites, were successful in repelling the Pope's armies, and the Holy Roman Empire finally recognized the Church's legitimacy
 The Hussite Church survived the reformation and merged into other churches
 The Schism still threatened the church, and a council was called at Pisa in 1409
 The theologians at the council deposed both popes, but neither resigned, thus a three-sided schism was created
 German Emperor Sigismund called a council at Constance, which aimed to do the following:
 	- End schism
 	- Wipe out heresy
 	- Reform the church
 This council included  cardinals, bishops, abbots, and theologians
 Results:
 	- Jan Hus was condemned a heretic and burned at the stake
 	- Both popes were finally deposed, and Martin V was chosen
 The council was dissolved before reform could take place, which laid the foundations for the protestant reformation
 == LAY PIETY AND MYSTICISM ==
 The Avignon Papacy and the Schism weakened the spiritual mystique of the clergy, and many laypeople had found their own ways to become pious
 Laypeople had formed confraternities, some of which had specified in praying for souls in purgatory, hosting church festivals, and raised money for the upkeep of churches
 Separate womens confraternities oversaw production of fabric items for churches
 A group in Holland called the Bretheren and Sisters of the Common Life lived simple lives while feeding the hungry, clothing the naked, and visiting the sick.
 "The Imitation of Christ" urged people to make Christ a model for their lives
 For all people, clergy included, mystical experiences were part of religious devotion
 Bridget of Sweden was a noble woman who made a pilgrimage to Rome after her husband's death, had visions and gave advice to laypeople and clergy
 She made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem at the end of her life, when she had visions of Mary describing what it was like giving birth to Jesus
 Conraternities were not considered heretical unless they challenged church authority like Hus, Wyclif, and the conciliarists
 5 == SOCIAL UNREST IN A CHANGING SOCIETY ==
 MAIN POINT: Peasants were frusturated with lack of work, high taxes, and crime, and turned to revolt as a solution
 == PEASANT REVOLTS ==
 Nobles had lived off of peasant labor while not thinking twice of adding taxes to the burden
 Peasants endured severe exploitation for centuries, but the difficult conditions of the 14th and 15th centuries sparked revolt
 The first major rebellion was in Flanders, because:
 	- Flemish peasants were forced to pay high taxes to the French after the Hundred Years' War, because France claimed fiscal rights over the nation
 	- Monasteries demanded money from peasants
 The peasants sacked castles and countryside mansions, but were stopped by the French Army, and a brutal retaliation followed
 More riots broke out elsewhere, such as the Jacqueire in France, led by Jacques Bonhomme
 Peasants blamed nobles for high taxes, crime, death toll from the war, and poor conditions in general
 Revolts were extremely violent, they killed nobles, assaulted their wives and daughters, burned their castles and killed their livestock and horses
 Artisans and merchants joined the peasants
 The upper class then suppressed the rebellion with full force, driving it undergrounc
 English peasants demanded more wages and less manorial obligations, due to a cut in labor supply after the Black Death
 The King froze wages and bound workers to their manors, this was unenforcable, however
 Main factors in England that contributed to rebellion:
 	- French raids during the Hundred Years' War
 	- Lack of protection from the government
 	- Aristocratic violence against peasants
 	- Social and religious agitation
 Main cause of rebellion in England: A tax on all adult males to pay for the war
 	This tax was very unpopular. Despite this, the royal council ordered sheriffs to collect these taxes forcefully
 People involved:
 	Peasants
 	Urban artisans
 	Rural residents
 The rebellion began with attacks on the tax collectors, then followed the course of the Jacqueire
 Many nobles were murdered, including the Archbishop of Canterbury
 Rebellion was primary in the south and east, although conflict did occur in the north
 King Richard II met the leaders of the rebellion, made false promises, then suppressed the rebellion with full force
 The nobility attempted to restore serfdom, but failed, and serfdom eventually disappeared in England by 1550
 == URBAN CONFLICTS ==
 In Flanders, France, and England, peasant revolts mixed with workers conflicts in cities
 These urban revolts had their roots in changing nature and conditions of labor
 13th century:
 	Craft guilds organized production
 14th century:
 	A new system, capitalism, was designed to support mass production
 Overview of capitalism:
 	Investors hired households to perform one step of the process
 	(Investors initially wealthy bankers and merchants, but eventually became shop keepers)
 This new system promoted division within the guilds, their wealthy masters, and poor masters and journeymen hired by the richer masters
 Some masters did not need to work in shops anymore because they became so wealthy
 Capitalism, while it provided many opportunities, it also led to a decrease in income for some
 Guilds sometimes opened membership, but they more likely limited membership to existing families
 This meant that journeymen who were not the sons of masters, or who could not find a master's daughter or widow to marry, could not become masters
 Remaining journeymen lost solidarity with the masters of their craft, this resentment led to rebellion
 Uprisings in cities were also caused by honor-related issues, such as ordering workers to do tasks regarded as beneath them
 Guilds tied honor as tied to an all male workplace
 	When the economies of cities were expanding in the High Middle Ages, the master's wife and daughters worked alongside him, as well as female servants
 	A master's widow would run his shop after his death
 However, in the 14th century, women's participation in guilds dropped, even after the labor shortage caused by the plague
 == SEX IN THE CITY ==
 Marital patterns may have had correlations to peasant and urban revolts
 In Northwestern Europe, people believed a couple should be financially independent before marriage, not only in times of crisis, but in general
 During this time period, women married older than they had historically, as a result:
 	She was not dependent on her husband as much as a younger woman would be
 	She had less pregnancies (not necessarily fewer surviving children"
 Men always tended to be older than the women they married, usually in their mid to late twenties, with wealthier men much older
 Journeymen, apprentices, and university students were prohibited from marrying
 These prohibitions meant cities and villages were full of unmarried men, who had no responsibilities, and often caused riots and unrest
 This contributed to sexual services outside of marriage - prostitution
 Many cities in France set up legal houses of prostitution, which were regulated
 Visiting brothels was associated among young men with achieving manhood
 Poor women often went into sex work as a way to make money
 While prostitution was legal, there were many regulations on prostitutes themselves, being required to wear certain clothing, restrictions on movement, etc
 A few women were able to buy property, but most were poor
 Men frequently took sex by force, where unmarried women found it hard to avoid sexual contact
 There were little protections in place for female servants or day laborers
 Same-sex relationshipss were another component of medieval life
 Homosexuality was of little concern to the church or state in the early middle ages, but this changed around 1300, with defined laws such as "crimes against nature"
 Same-sex relationships were termed sodomy, and it became a capital crime in most of the continent, with execution by fire threatened
 A couple cities created special courts to deal with sodomy
 Between 1432 and 1502, 17,000 men came to the attention of the court in Florence
 Almost all cases involved an adult male and an adolescent boy
 Many of these relationships developed in all male environments
 == FUR COLLAR CRIME ==
 Due to inflation, many nobles turned to crime to raise money
 These crimes involved violence and fraud
 Examples:
 	- Knightly gangs demanded peasants pay protection money or else their property would be burned down
 	- They heald wealthy travelers for ransom
 	- Corrupt landowners pushed for higher taxes
 	- Intimidation of witnesses
 	- Threatening of jurors
 	- Persuasion
 	- Bribes
 Fur collar crimes led to revolt, but also inspired popular culture
 Robin Hood is a prime example of this
 == ETHNIC TENSIONS AND RESTRICTIONS ==
 People from all across Europe migrated to different countries in search of work, land, and food
 People of all different ethnic backgrounds lived alongside each other
 In most places, native people were subject to their traditional laws, wheread foreigners were subject to the laws of wherever they had come from
 The great exception to this was Ireland, where the English discriminated against the native Irish from the start
 Irish people:
 	- Were deemed "unfree" from birth
 	- Were denied access to the common law courts
 	- Could be murdered and no felony charges would be brought against the killer
 In other places, people prospered from the growing economies of the 14th century, ethnic tensions also rose
 The legal dualism system was done away with in the late Middle Ages, and homogeneity was put in place, with blood descent emplasized.
 The dominant ethnic group of an area barred foreigners from opportunities
 The Statute of Kilkenny forbade the marriage between an Irish and British person, forbade use of the Irish language, forced name changes, among other things
 People began referring to nation of origin as "blood", this emerged after the Hundred Years' war
 This expanded into religion ("Christian blood") and nobility ("Noble blood")
 == LITERACY AND VERNACULAR LITERATURE ==
 Ethnic tensions encouraged the use of vernacular, rather than Latin
 The use of vernacular encouraged the writing of Dante's Divine Comedy and Chaucer's Canterbury Takles
 The Divine Comedy is a poem describing the narrator's journey through hell, purgatory, and eventually into heaven, containing criticism of church authority
 Canterbury Tales is a collection of short stories where a group of pilgrims journey to Canterbury to pay homage to Thomas Becket
 Both of these works show cultural tensions
 The beginning of the 14th century saw increasing literacy for laypeople
 Schools quadrupled within the Diocese of York in England between 1350 and 1500
 Children in Flanders and Germany learned basic reading, writing, and math at school
 Laymen more often served as clerks and managers
 Laymen also adopted government positions more frequently, a clear sign of increasing literacy
 The upper class sent their daughters to convent schools, where they learned the basics of religious and home life
 Society was shifting from an oral culture to a written culture
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 == THE NORTHERN RENAISSANCE ==
 Northern Renaissance begins in Flanders
 - A prosperous city in Northern France
 	- Was very active in the wool trade, had been coveted by England in the Hundred Years' War
 	- Renaissance in the North began there and then spread to the rest of Europe
 	- Why?
 		- Trade brings in new ideas
 		- Wealth for patronage
 Spreading North
 - The Renaissance in the North was due in large part to the creation of the printing press
 	- Before the printing press, every book was copied carefully by hand
 		- Few books in Europe, the majority of which were in monasteries as monks did most of the laborious task
 		- In the Middle Ages, only a select few could read and write anyway
 	- Expansion of schools had led to a more literate upper class, and paper became cheaper to make
 Effects
 - Books were cheaper and more available
 - More people learned to read
 - People were exposed to a variety of subjects and knowledge
 	- Boosted self-esteem
 	- Made the literate more critical
 	- Could be used to spread messages and propaganda
 Flemish Painters
 - Jan Van Eyck
 	- Painted quaint portrayals of towns religious themes that are exceptionally realistic in their details
 	- The Arnolfini Marriage is one of his most famous works
 - Pieter Bruegel
 	- Famous for his portrayal of peasant themes and religious scenes placed in the peasant world
 - Peter Paul Rubens
 	- Combined the realism of the Northern Renaissance with the classical themes of the Renaissance in Italy
 		- Well educated in mythology, the Bible, and ancient history
 		- A classic humanist
 - Albrecht Durer
 	- "Leonardo of the North"
 		- Traveled to Italy as an artist, then returned North
 		- A painter famous for his self portraits
 			- celebrated his own beauty and genius
 			- Imposed his face on an image of Christ - called the birth of the modern artist
 	- Applied Italian painting techniques to engravings
 Northern Humanists
 - Thought a classical education would cause religious and moral reform
 - Erasmus: Most famous humanist of the Northern Renaissance
 	- A priest who wanted to reform the church even before the Reformation
 - Sir Thomas More
 	- English Humanist
 	- Friend of Erasmus, wrote Utopia
 		- Describes a perfect civilization based on reason and tolerance
 		- All goods are held in common and people are required to earn their bread through work
 	- Political advisor to King Henry VIII
 		- A trusted diplomat
 		- Fell out of favornwhen he disputed the Act of Supremacy and King Henry's marriage to Anne Boleyn
 - Francois Rabelais
 	- A French Humanist and Renaissance man
 		- Monk, physician, Greek scholar and author
 	- Wrote Gargantua and Pantagruel
 		- The epic poem of a gentle giant and his son
 		- A comedy, discusses the various people they meet, the sides they take in various conflicts, etc
 		- Used it as a medium for social commentary
 - William Shakespeare
 	- An English playwright
 		- Worked as a teacher for a time, became very educated in Renaissance literature and history
 	- Wrote 37 plays between 1590 and 1613
 		- Focused on the importance and potential of the individual
 		- Also paid homage to ancient Greece and Rome - wrote plays like Julius Caesar
 	- Wrote in Elizabethan England, considered one of the last Renaissance artists
 == THE NEW MONARCHIES ==
 -- Characteristics of the New Monarchies --
 1. They offered the institution of monarchy as a guarantee of law and order
 2. They proclaimed that hereditary monarchy was the legitimate form of public power -> all should accept this without resistance
 3. They enlisted the support of the middle clas in the towns -> tired of the local power of feudal nobles
 4. They would have to get their monarchies sufficiently organized & their finances into reliable order
 5. They would break down the mass of feudal, inherited, customary, or "common" law in which the rights of the feudal classes were entrenched
 6. The kings would MAKE law, enact it by his own authority, regardless of previous custom or historic liberties -> what pleases the prince has the force of law
 England -> Stability under the Tudors
 France -> Consolidation of power
 Spain -> Unification by marriage
 Holy Roman Empire -> Different model: the cost of decentralization
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 == Henry VIII and the Counter Reformation ==
 -- The English Reformation --
 Henry VIII denounced the reformation
 	- Given the title "Defender of the Faith"
 His #1 goal - beget a bale heir to solve the issue of succession
 	- His father had won the War of the Roses, a civil war in England over succession after past kings had left no clear heirs
 -- Wife #1 --
 In 1509, Henry VIII married Catherine of Aragon
 	- Widow of his older brother, daughter of the King and Queen of Spain, and aunt to the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V
 	- In 18 years, they only had one child, a daughter - Mary, and a number of miscarriages and stillbirths
 	- Henry thought the marriage was cursed
 		- The union was forbidden and had required a special dispensation from the Pope
 Henry was interesetd in Anne Boleyn, a lady in waiting
 	- To marry her would require an annulment from the pope
 		- Charles V was holding the pope captive, and the marriage was 18 years old
 -- Acquiring Wife #2 --
 Henry VIII convened the "Reformation Parliament"
 	- Recognized Henry as the head of church in England
 	- Placed the clergy under royal jurisdiction
 		- Also ended all payments to the laity in Rome
 In 1533, he married the pregnant Anne Boleyn
 	- She soon gave birth to Elizabeth, and the Act of Succession made Anne's children legitimate heirs
 Act of Supremacy - made henry the only supreme head of the Church of England in 1534
 	- In 1537, Anne was beheaded for treason and adultery, and Elizabeth was declared illegitimate
 -- Wife #3 and #4 --
 Jane Seymour: 3rd wife
 	- Married her 11 days after he beheaded Anne Boleyn
 	- The only wife to provide him with a son, Edward VI
 		- Died 12 days later from complications from childbirth, Henry saw her as his best wife
 Anne of Cleves: 4th wife
 	- Sister to a German Duke, their wedding was to unite the newly protestant England with German protestants
 		- Holbein was sent to England to paint her, brought back a beautiful portrait
 		- Henry agreed to marry her based on it, but she wasn't as beautiful in reality
 		- Divorced, but paid handsomely, stayed in England
 -- Wife #5 and #6 --
 Katherine Howard
 	- Lady in waiting to Anne of Cleves
 	- Secretly seeing an old boyfriend and had previously been engaged
 		- Old boyfriends were tortured and killed, she was also beheaded after 18 months of marriage
 Katherine Parr
 	- Married in 1543 (her third husband)
 	- Very religious, wrote some books on theology, stayed by his side until his death
 -- Mary I --
 Catherine of Aragon's Daughter, a devout Catholic
 	- Tried to return England to the Catholic Church
 		- Many protestants protested
 		- She persecuted them, earning the name "Bloody Mary"
 		- Some chose exile and left, it is unknown how many died (Elizabeth also killed a similar number of Catholics during her reign)
 She died childless in 1558
 -- Queen Elizabeth I --
 Daughter of Anne Boleyn, inherited the throne after Mary's death
 Re-established the protestant church and compromised with the Elizabethan settlement
 	- Kept Catholic ritual and hierarchy
 		- Bishops would handle the day to day affairs, would keep Catholic ritual and appearance
 	- Elizabeth was "supreme governor" over spiritual matters
 		- Ended the Pope's authority once and for all
 -- Religious Wars --
 After the Hundred Years War, France had relative peace until the Reformation
 Involved in a religious conflict against French Protestants known as the Huguenots
 	- The crown was caught in the power struggle between the Huguenots and the Guises (Militant Catholics)
 		- The Queen Mother convinced the French King Charles IX that there was a protestant conspiracy, only a swift execution of their leaders could prevent an attack on Paris
 	- St Bartholomew's Day Massacre - Huguenot leader and 3,000 other Huguenots killed in Paris
 		- Within 3 days, 20,000 protestants dead
 		- Huguenot and Catholic factions continued to battle
 -- Henry IV Brings Peace --
 In 1589, Henry IV, a Huguenot came to the throne of France
 	- Willing to put political peace above religious unity
 		- the catholic league had the support of the Pope and the Spanish
 	- Opposed by Catholics for 4 years, then converted
 		- "Paris is worth a Mass"
 Issued the Edict of Nantes to protect protestants
 	- Country remained officially catholic
 	- Granted Huguenots the right to public worship, right of assembly, admission to universities, and the right to build fortified towns
 == The Catholic Reformation ==
 Also known as the counter-reformation
 	- Reformers inside the church had been pushing change for years
 		- popes were afraid of being stripped of powers
 		- Many religious orders were established
 Reformers began inside the church to restore its credibility and morality
 	- Begun in the 1530s by Pope Paul III
 	- Ended corruption in the papacy
 == Council of Trent ==
 Initiated by Charles V and Pope Paul III
 Begun in 1545 to decide what the reforms should look like
 	- Met for 20 years
 	- Reaffirmed traditiional Catholic beliefs
 		- Salvation does not come from good works
 		- Bible is not the only source of religious truth
 		- All 7 sacraments, transubstantiation, and veneration of saints
 	- Tried to end abuses
 		- Stiff penalties for corruption
 == The Jesuits ==
 A new order founded by Ignatius of Loyola
 	- A former crusader, he created a program of strict self discipline
 		- Emotional and spiritual exercises that taught mastery over one's feelings, perfect self control through practice
 	- Tried to defent the catholic church and spread the faith
 		- Advised catholic rulers
 		- Established schools that combined discipline with humanism
 		- Travelled to other continents like Africa, Asia, and the Americas to spread catholicism
 == Teresa of Avila ==
 At an early age, felt called to enter a Carmelite convent
 	- Dissatisfied with the discipline there, she left and founded her own order
 		- Afraid that her contact with her relatives and the outside world would make her unworthy of God's grace
 		- Her new order was isolated, dedicated themselves to prayer and meditation
 Impressed with her own work, church authorities asked her to impose her reforms on other convents and monasteries
 	- she foundde many communities and reformed others 
 == Success of the Catholic Reformation ==
 Majority of Europeans remained Catholic
 	- Reformers won back protestant converts
 		- Over half converted back by the end of the 16th century
 Church abuses were reduced, charity increased
 Protestant churches did remain
 	- debate continued over the interpretations of Christianity
 	- in protestant cities, services were said in the vernacular, clergy could marry and were subject to taxes and civil courts
 == Persecutions of the Reformations ==
 Witch hunts 1450-1750
 	- People believed in magic which could be done with the help of the devil
 		- anti christian
 70-100 thousand people were sentenced to death for harmful magic or diabolical witchcraft
 	- Majority of the accused witches were women
 	- people who behaved in non-traditional ways were most often targeted
 	- Social outcasts, beggars, midwives and herbalists
 Jews
 	- in the renaissance, many cities relegated the jews into ghettos
 		- under pressure to convert
 	- Luther called for jews who did not convert to his teachings to be expelled and their synagogues burned down
 	- Charles V would not allow them to settle new Spanish territories
 	- Many jews fled to the ottoman empire
 == Henry VIII and the Counter Reformation ==
 -- The English Reformation --
 Henry VIII denounced the reformation
 	- Given the title "Defender of the Faith"
 His #1 goal - beget a bale heir to solve the issue of succession
 	- His father had won the War of the Roses, a civil war in England over succession after past kings had left no clear heirs
 -- Wife #1 --
 In 1509, Henry VIII married Catherine of Aragon
 	- Widow of his older brother, daughter of the King and Queen of Spain, and aunt to the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V
 	- In 18 years, they only had one child, a daughter - Mary, and a number of miscarriages and stillbirths
 	- Henry thought the marriage was cursed
 		- The union was forbidden and had required a special dispensation from the Pope
 Henry was interesetd in Anne Boleyn, a lady in waiting
 	- To marry her would require an annulment from the pope
 		- Charles V was holding the pope captive, and the marriage was 18 years old
 -- Acquiring Wife #2 --
 Henry VIII convened the "Reformation Parliament"
 	- Recognized Henry as the head of church in England
 	- Placed the clergy under royal jurisdiction
 		- Also ended all payments to the laity in Rome
 In 1533, he married the pregnant Anne Boleyn
 	- She soon gave birth to Elizabeth, and the Act of Succession made Anne's children legitimate heirs
 Act of Supremacy - made henry the only supreme head of the Church of England in 1534
 	- In 1537, Anne was beheaded for treason and adultery, and Elizabeth was declared illegitimate
 -- Wife #3 and #4 --
 Jane Seymour: 3rd wife
 	- Married her 11 days after he beheaded Anne Boleyn
 	- The only wife to provide him with a son, Edward VI
 		- Died 12 days later from complications from childbirth, Henry saw her as his best wife
 Anne of Cleves: 4th wife
 	- Sister to a German Duke, their wedding was to unite the newly protestant England with German protestants
 		- Holbein was sent to England to paint her, brought back a beautiful portrait
 		- Henry agreed to marry her based on it, but she wasn't as beautiful in reality
 		- Divorced, but paid handsomely, stayed in England
 -- Wife #5 and #6 --
 Katherine Howard
 	- Lady in waiting to Anne of Cleves
 	- Secretly seeing an old boyfriend and had previously been engaged
 		- Old boyfriends were tortured and killed, she was also beheaded after 18 months of marriage
 Katherine Parr
 	- Married in 1543 (her third husband)
 	- Very religious, wrote some books on theology, stayed by his side until his death
 -- Mary I --
 Catherine of Aragon's Daughter, a devout Catholic
 	- Tried to return England to the Catholic Church
 		- Many protestants protested
 		- She persecuted them, earning the name "Bloody Mary"
 		- Some chose exile and left, it is unknown how many died (Elizabeth also killed a similar number of Catholics during her reign)
 She died childless in 1558
 -- Queen Elizabeth I --
 Daughter of Anne Boleyn, inherited the throne after Mary's death
 Re-established the protestant church and compromised with the Elizabethan settlement
 	- Kept Catholic ritual and hierarchy
 		- Bishops would handle the day to day affairs, would keep Catholic ritual and appearance
 	- Elizabeth was "supreme governor" over spiritual matters
 		- Ended the Pope's authority once and for all
 -- Religious Wars --
 After the Hundred Years War, France had relative peace until the Reformation
 Involved in a religious conflict against French Protestants known as the Huguenots
 	- The crown was caught in the power struggle between the Huguenots and the Guises (Militant Catholics)
 		- The Queen Mother convinced the French King Charles IX that there was a protestant conspiracy, only a swift execution of their leaders could prevent an attack on Paris
 	- St Bartholomew's Day Massacre - Huguenot leader and 3,000 other Huguenots killed in Paris
 		- Within 3 days, 20,000 protestants dead
 		- Huguenot and Catholic factions continued to battle
 -- Henry IV Brings Peace --
 In 1589, Henry IV, a Huguenot came to the throne of France
 	- Willing to put political peace above religious unity
 		- the catholic league had the support of the Pope and the Spanish
 	- Opposed by Catholics for 4 years, then converted
 		- "Paris is worth a Mass"
 Issued the Edict of Nantes to protect protestants
 	- Country remained officially catholic
 	- Granted Huguenots the right to public worship, right of assembly, admission to universities, and the right to build fortified towns
 == The Catholic Reformation ==
 Also known as the counter-reformation
 	- Reformers inside the church had been pushing change for years
 		- popes were afraid of being stripped of powers
 		- Many religious orders were established
 Reformers began inside the church to restore its credibility and morality
 	- Begun in the 1530s by Pope Paul III
 	- Ended corruption in the papacy
 == Council of Trent ==
 Initiated by Charles V and Pope Paul III
 Begun in 1545 to decide what the reforms should look like
 	- Met for 20 years
 	- Reaffirmed traditiional Catholic beliefs
 		- Salvation does not come from good works
 		- Bible is not the only source of religious truth
 		- All 7 sacraments, transubstantiation, and veneration of saints
 	- Tried to end abuses
 		- Stiff penalties for corruption
 == The Jesuits ==
 A new order founded by Ignatius of Loyola
 	- A former crusader, he created a program of strict self discipline
 		- Emotional and spiritual exercises that taught mastery over one's feelings, perfect self control through practice
 	- Tried to defent the catholic church and spread the faith
 		- Advised catholic rulers
 		- Established schools that combined discipline with humanism
 		- Travelled to other continents like Africa, Asia, and the Americas to spread catholicism
 == Teresa of Avila ==
 At an early age, felt called to enter a Carmelite convent
 	- Dissatisfied with the discipline there, she left and founded her own order
 		- Afraid that her contact with her relatives and the outside world would make her unworthy of God's grace
 		- Her new order was isolated, dedicated themselves to prayer and meditation
 Impressed with her own work, church authorities asked her to impose her reforms on other convents and monasteries
 	- she foundde many communities and reformed others 
 == Success of the Catholic Reformation ==
 Majority of Europeans remained Catholic
 	- Reformers won back protestant converts
 		- Over half converted back by the end of the 16th century
 Church abuses were reduced, charity increased
 Protestant churches did remain
 	- debate continued over the interpretations of Christianity
 	- in protestant cities, services were said in the vernacular, clergy could marry and were subject to taxes and civil courts
 == Persecutions of the Reformations ==
 Witch hunts 1450-1750
 	- People believed in magic which could be done with the help of the devil
 		- anti christian
 70-100 thousand people were sentenced to death for harmful magic or diabolical witchcraft
 	- Majority of the accused witches were women
 	- people who behaved in non-traditional ways were most often targeted
 	- Social outcasts, beggars, midwives and herbalists
 Jews
 	- in the renaissance, many cities relegated the jews into ghettos
 		- under pressure to convert
 	- Luther called for jews who did not convert to his teachings to be expelled and their synagogues burned down
 	- Charles V would not allow them to settle new Spanish territories
 	- Many jews fled to the ottoman empire
 == The Protestant Reformation ==
 -- Causes --
 Humanists encouraged education
 	- Those who were educated became more ctirical of their institutions, including the Church
 Clergy and church property were largely exempt from taxes, many laws, and civic obligations
 	- Did not have to participate in the military, city watch or be tried in civil court
 The hierarchy of the church had become pre-occupied with secular affairs
 	- Controlled the papal states and fought wars to protect them
 	-Feuded with secular rulers over control of church offices
 	- Popes led lavish lives like contemporary kinds
 The Church required money for war, construction, and to support the lifestyle of some of the clergy
 Raised the money in several ways
 	- Increased fees for services
 	- "Sold" indulgences
 		- After absolution, a person still must do penance for their sins
 		- If not enough is done in this life, one pays for it in purgatory after death
 -- Martin Luther --
 Well educated son of a miner
 	- His parents wanted him to be a lawyer but he entered the Order of Saint Augustine instead
 	- Ordained in 1507, he travelled to Rome where he saw many things that disillusioned him about
 Luther struggled with his own sinfulness and the perfect righteousness necessary for salvation
 	- Came up with the idea of "justification by faith alone" by 1518 (sola fide)
 		- Salvation did not come from charitable acts or reigious ceremonies but from full trust in Jesus Christ
 		- God is pleased with good works, but it has no bearing on whether or not he bestows eternal life
 -- Luther v Tetzel --
 In 1517, Pope Leo X revived a Jubilee Indulgence
 	- It would forgive all outstanding un-repented sins upon the completion of certain acts
 	- The funds were put toward building the Cathedral of Peter in Rome
 Johann Tetzel was sent to sell those indulgences in Germany
 	- He advertized them as a way to be free from future guilt or free relatives from purgatory
 	- Did not ask for repentance
 Luther was outraged by Tetzel's claims
 	- Believed that Tetzel's sale of indulgences made it appear thayt salvation was something that could be bought and sold
 	- Wrote the 95 Theses and nailed them to the doors of the church in Wittenbrg, argued that
 		- Indulgences were not based on the Bible
 		- Pope did not have the authority to free souls from purgatory
 -- Reaction to the Theses --
 Copies of the 95 Theses were printed and distributed throughout Europe
 	- A debate was scheduled between Luther and Tetzel
 	- In the debate, Luther went even further, challenging the Treasury of Merit and the Pope's authority in other areas
 The Church asked Luther to recant
 	- Luther's calls became even more extreme
 		- At first, he had only meant to reform the Catholic Church
 		- Later, he called christians to reject the Pope's authority and that the Church could only be reformed from the outside
 		- Asserted the authority of scripture alone
 		- Called the Pope the Antichrist
 In 1521, Leo X gave him 60 days to recant, then excommunicated him
 Peace of Augsburg
 	It allowed German princes to choose between Catholicism and Lutheranism
 	Who it protected: Protestants
 Elizabethan Settlement
 	It allowed Catholics to practice their faith, while ending Papal authority in England
 	Who it protected: Catholics
 Edict of Nantes
 	It ensured rights of Protestants, such as the right to public assembly and worship
 	Who it protected: Protestants
 === 13 === REFORMATION AND RELIGIOUS WARS ===
 Chronology
 1517 - Martin Luther writes "Ninety-five Theses on the Power of Indulgences"
 1521 - Diet of Worms
 1521-1559 - Habsburg-Valois wars
 1525 - German Peasants' War
 1526 - Turkish victory at Mohacs, which allows spread of protestantism in Hungary
 1530s - Henry VIII ends the authority of the pope in England
 1535 - Angela Merici establishes the Ursulines as the first women's teaching order
 1536 - John Calvin publishes "The Institutes of the Christian Religion"
 1540 - Papal approval of Society of Jesus (Jesuits)
 1542 - Pope Paul III establishes the Supreme Sacred Congregation of the Roman and Universal Inquisition
 1545-1563 - Council of Trent
 1553-1558 - Reign of Mary Tudor and temporary restoration of Catholicism in England
 1555 - Peace of Augsburg; official recognition of Lutheranism
 1558-1603 - Reign of Elizabeth in England
 1560-1660 - Height of the European witch-hunt
 1568-1578 - Civil War in the Netherlands
 1572 - Saint Bartholomew's Day massacre
 1588 - England defeats Spanish Armada
 1598 - Edict of Nantes
 == The Christian Church in the Early Sixteenth Century ==
 Europeans in the early 1500s were deeply pious
 Examples:
 	- Processions
 	- Pilgrimages
 	- Paying for altars
 	- Praying for the church
 	- Devoting time and money
 Due to this piety many were critical of the Roman Catholic Church and clergy
 Church had a damaged reputation due to:
 	- Papal conflict with German Emperor Frederick II in the 1200s
 	- Babylonian captivity
 	- Great Schism
 People criticized:
 	- Papal tax collection
 	- The papacy itself
 	- Church hierarchy
 	- Church wealth
 Some argued that certain doctrines were incorrect
 These people wanted to reform institutions, educate clergy more, regulare clerical behavior, and alter doctrines
 These efforts saw success in Bohemia, where a church independent from Rome existed a century before the reformation
 Anti-clerical ideas rampant
 	- Some priests were corrupt and did not live according to doctrine
 Priests held multiple offices but did not uphold their spiritual responsibilities and simply collected money
 Priests, monks, and nuns exempt from civil responsibility, yet religious orders held large swaths of property
 == Martin Luther ==
 Criticism alone did not cause the reformation, instead the religious struggle of Martin Luther did
 -- Martin Luther --
 	Born in Saxony
 	Earned a master's degree at University of Erfurt
 	Originally wanted to be a lawyer, instead became an Augustinian friar
 	Ordained 1507
 	Professor at Univ. of Wittenberg
 	Had religious OCD (scrupulosity)
 Luther's doctrines included:
 	Scripture alone (sola scriptura)
 	Faith alone (sola fide)
 	Grace alone (sola gratia)
 Indulgences: a document issued by the church lessening penance or time in purgatory
 Johann Tetzel: Dominican friar who said those who bought indulgences would have all of their sins forgiven
 Luther wrote "Ninety-Five Theses on the Power of Indulgences" in 1517
 Nailed to Wittenberg castle's church door
 Luther utilized printing press to spread these ideas
 Charles V called the Diet of Worms to make Luther recant
 == Protestant Thought ==
 Ulrich Zwingli taught scripture alone
 The word "protestant" derives from the protest of a small group of German princes
 CATHOLIC VS PROTESTANT
 	Salvation:
 		Catholics: Faith and good works
 		Protestants: Faith alone
 	Authority:
 		Catholics: Scripture and tradition
 		Protestants: Scripture alone
 Protestants believe the church is a spiritual fellowhood of all believers
 Catholics believe in transubstantiation
 Lutherans believe that Christ is present in the bread and wine through God's mystery
 Zwingli held that the Eucharist was merely a remembrance
 == The Appeal of Protestant Ideas ==
 Luther advocated a simple religion based on faith and a return to the early church
 Everyone should read scripture
 Scholars attribute Luther's fame to the printing press
 Luther and Zwingli wanted political authority to accept the reformation
 Luther worked with Saxon nobility
 == Radical Reformation ==
 Anabaptists: rebaptizers, those who advocated adult baptism
 Some groups wanted communal ownership and rejected "unbiblical living"
 Anabaptists banished, beaten, burned, or drowned
 Radical reformers called for social and religious change
 Luther wanted to prevent rebellion
 Freedom for Luther meant independence from Catholic authority
 German Peasants' War of 1525 stregnthened authority of lay rulers
 == Marriage, Sexuality, and the Role of Women ==
 Protestant reformers married
 Expected to be models of obedience and charity
 Women asked to be cheerful in obedience
 Protestants saw marriage as a contract
 Protestants allowed divorce
 Reformation had a positive impact on marriage
 Reformation brought about the closing of monasteries and convents, marriage was the only option for protestant women
 Women not allowed in clergy, but allowed to make policy
 == Rise of the Habsburg Dynasty == 
 Marriage used to create alliances
 Habsburgs became international power
 Marriage of Maximilian and Mary angered France
 Charles V inherited Holy Roman Empire
 Charles V strongly anti protestant
 == Religious Wars in Switzerland and Germany ==
 Ruler determined religious practice in his land
 A treary in switzerland allowed religious freedom and ordered neutrality
 Charles V called a diet in Augsburg in 1530
 Habsburg-Valois wars (1521-1559) were fought in Italy and Germany
 Charles V fighting for religious unity and centralized state
 in 1555 Charles agreed to the Peace of Augsburg, which formally recognized Lutheranism, and let princes choose between Catholicism and Lutheranism
 Ended religious wars in Germany
 John Calvin had a profound influence
 == England ==
 Reformation in England had economic and political reasons
 Henry wanted an annulment for his marriage, but did not get it
 Henry removed papal jurisdiction from England and made himself supreme head of the Church in England
 English church retained catholic practices
 Church land came under crown rule
 England transformed into a modern state
 Most clergy complacent, but some started the Pilgrimage of Grace, largest rebellion in English history
 Ireland was strongly catholic
 == Upholding protestantism in England ==
 Protestant ideas influenced life strongly
 Book of common prayer approved by parliament
 Mary Tudor ruled briefly and attempted to bring back Catholicism
 Elizabeth succeeded Mary and brought about religious stability
 Some wanted more elements of Catholicism in the Church of England
 Others wanted none at all: Puritans
 == Calvinism ==
 John Calvin born in 1509
 Converted to protestantism
 Taught predestination: God decided at the beginning of time who would be saved and who wouldn't
 Set up theocracy in Geneva
 Became a model for reformers across Europe
 == The Protestant Reformation ==
 -- Causes --
 Humanists encouraged education
 	- Those who were educated became more ctirical of their institutions, including the Church
 Clergy and church property were largely exempt from taxes, many laws, and civic obligations
 	- Did not have to participate in the military, city watch or be tried in civil court
 The hierarchy of the church had become pre-occupied with secular affairs
 	- Controlled the papal states and fought wars to protect them
 	-Feuded with secular rulers over control of church offices
 	- Popes led lavish lives like contemporary kinds
 The Church required money for war, construction, and to support the lifestyle of some of the clergy
 Raised the money in several ways
 	- Increased fees for services
 	- "Sold" indulgences
 		- After absolution, a person still must do penance for their sins
 		- If not enough is done in this life, one pays for it in purgatory after death
 -- Martin Luther --
 Well educated son of a miner
 	- His parents wanted him to be a lawyer but he entered the Order of Saint Augustine instead
 	- Ordained in 1507, he travelled to Rome where he saw many things that disillusioned him about
 Luther struggled with his own sinfulness and the perfect righteousness necessary for salvation
 	- Came up with the idea of "justification by faith alone" by 1518 (sola fide)
 		- Salvation did not come from charitable acts or reigious ceremonies but from full trust in Jesus Christ
 		- God is pleased with good works, but it has no bearing on whether or not he bestows eternal life
 -- Luther v Tetzel --
 In 1517, Pope Leo X revived a Jubilee Indulgence
 	- It would forgive all outstanding un-repented sins upon the completion of certain acts
 	- The funds were put toward building the Cathedral of Peter in Rome
 Johann Tetzel was sent to sell those indulgences in Germany
 	- He advertized them as a way to be free from future guilt or free relatives from purgatory
 	- Did not ask for repentance
 Luther was outraged by Tetzel's claims
 	- Believed that Tetzel's sale of indulgences made it appear thayt salvation was something that could be bought and sold
 	- Wrote the 95 Theses and nailed them to the doors of the church in Wittenbrg, argued that
 		- Indulgences were not based on the Bible
 		- Pope did not have the authority to free souls from purgatory
 -- Reaction to the Theses --
 Copies of the 95 Theses were printed and distributed throughout Europe
 	- A debate was scheduled between Luther and Tetzel
 	- In the debate, Luther went even further, challenging the Treasury of Merit and the Pope's authority in other areas
 The Church asked Luther to recant
 	- Luther's calls became even more extreme
 		- At first, he had only meant to reform the Catholic Church
 		- Later, he called christians to reject the Pope's authority and that the Church could only be reformed from the outside
 		- Asserted the authority of scripture alone
 		- Called the Pope the Antichrist
 In 1521, Leo X gave him 60 days to recant, then excommunicated him
 Peace of Augsburg
 	It allowed German princes to choose between Catholicism and Lutheranism
 	Who it protected: Protestants
 Elizabethan Settlement
 	It allowed Catholics to practice their faith, while ending Papal authority in England
 	Who it protected: Catholics
 Edict of Nantes
 	It ensured rights of Protestants, such as the right to public assembly and worship
 	Who it protected: Protestants
 === 13 === REFORMATION AND RELIGIOUS WARS ===
 Chronology
 1517 - Martin Luther writes "Ninety-five Theses on the Power of Indulgences"
 1521 - Diet of Worms
 1521-1559 - Habsburg-Valois wars
 1525 - German Peasants' War
 1526 - Turkish victory at Mohacs, which allows spread of protestantism in Hungary
 1530s - Henry VIII ends the authority of the pope in England
 1535 - Angela Merici establishes the Ursulines as the first women's teaching order
 1536 - John Calvin publishes "The Institutes of the Christian Religion"
 1540 - Papal approval of Society of Jesus (Jesuits)
 1542 - Pope Paul III establishes the Supreme Sacred Congregation of the Roman and Universal Inquisition
 1545-1563 - Council of Trent
 1553-1558 - Reign of Mary Tudor and temporary restoration of Catholicism in England
 1555 - Peace of Augsburg; official recognition of Lutheranism
 1558-1603 - Reign of Elizabeth in England
 1560-1660 - Height of the European witch-hunt
 1568-1578 - Civil War in the Netherlands
 1572 - Saint Bartholomew's Day massacre
 1588 - England defeats Spanish Armada
 1598 - Edict of Nantes
 == The Christian Church in the Early Sixteenth Century ==
 Europeans in the early 1500s were deeply pious
 Examples:
 	- Processions
 	- Pilgrimages
 	- Paying for altars
 	- Praying for the church
 	- Devoting time and money
 Due to this piety many were critical of the Roman Catholic Church and clergy
 Church had a damaged reputation due to:
 	- Papal conflict with German Emperor Frederick II in the 1200s
 	- Babylonian captivity
 	- Great Schism
 People criticized:
 	- Papal tax collection
 	- The papacy itself
 	- Church hierarchy
 	- Church wealth
 Some argued that certain doctrines were incorrect
 These people wanted to reform institutions, educate clergy more, regulare clerical behavior, and alter doctrines
 These efforts saw success in Bohemia, where a church independent from Rome existed a century before the reformation
 Anti-clerical ideas rampant
 	- Some priests were corrupt and did not live according to doctrine
 Priests held multiple offices but did not uphold their spiritual responsibilities and simply collected money
 Priests, monks, and nuns exempt from civil responsibility, yet religious orders held large swaths of property
 == Martin Luther ==
 Criticism alone did not cause the reformation, instead the religious struggle of Martin Luther did
 -- Martin Luther --
 	Born in Saxony
 	Earned a master's degree at University of Erfurt
 	Originally wanted to be a lawyer, instead became an Augustinian friar
 	Ordained 1507
 	Professor at Univ. of Wittenberg
 	Had religious OCD (scrupulosity)
 Luther's doctrines included:
 	Scripture alone (sola scriptura)
 	Faith alone (sola fide)
 	Grace alone (sola gratia)
 Indulgences: a document issued by the church lessening penance or time in purgatory
 Johann Tetzel: Dominican friar who said those who bought indulgences would have all of their sins forgiven
 Luther wrote "Ninety-Five Theses on the Power of Indulgences" in 1517
 Nailed to Wittenberg castle's church door
 Luther utilized printing press to spread these ideas
 Charles V called the Diet of Worms to make Luther recant
 == Protestant Thought ==
 Ulrich Zwingli taught scripture alone
 The word "protestant" derives from the protest of a small group of German princes
 CATHOLIC VS PROTESTANT
 	Salvation:
 		Catholics: Faith and good works
 		Protestants: Faith alone
 	Authority:
 		Catholics: Scripture and tradition
 		Protestants: Scripture alone
 Protestants believe the church is a spiritual fellowhood of all believers
 Catholics believe in transubstantiation
 Lutherans believe that Christ is present in the bread and wine through God's mystery
 Zwingli held that the Eucharist was merely a remembrance
 == The Appeal of Protestant Ideas ==
 Luther advocated a simple religion based on faith and a return to the early church
 Everyone should read scripture
 Scholars attribute Luther's fame to the printing press
 Luther and Zwingli wanted political authority to accept the reformation
 Luther worked with Saxon nobility
 == Radical Reformation ==
 Anabaptists: rebaptizers, those who advocated adult baptism
 Some groups wanted communal ownership and rejected "unbiblical living"
 Anabaptists banished, beaten, burned, or drowned
 Radical reformers called for social and religious change
 Luther wanted to prevent rebellion
 Freedom for Luther meant independence from Catholic authority
 German Peasants' War of 1525 stregnthened authority of lay rulers
 == Marriage, Sexuality, and the Role of Women ==
 Protestant reformers married
 Expected to be models of obedience and charity
 Women asked to be cheerful in obedience
 Protestants saw marriage as a contract
 Protestants allowed divorce
 Reformation had a positive impact on marriage
 Reformation brought about the closing of monasteries and convents, marriage was the only option for protestant women
 Women not allowed in clergy, but allowed to make policy
 == Rise of the Habsburg Dynasty == 
 Marriage used to create alliances
 Habsburgs became international power
 Marriage of Maximilian and Mary angered France
 Charles V inherited Holy Roman Empire
 Charles V strongly anti protestant
 == Religious Wars in Switzerland and Germany ==
 Ruler determined religious practice in his land
 A treary in switzerland allowed religious freedom and ordered neutrality
 Charles V called a diet in Augsburg in 1530
 Habsburg-Valois wars (1521-1559) were fought in Italy and Germany
 Charles V fighting for religious unity and centralized state
 in 1555 Charles agreed to the Peace of Augsburg, which formally recognized Lutheranism, and let princes choose between Catholicism and Lutheranism
 Ended religious wars in Germany
 John Calvin had a profound influence
 == England ==
 Reformation in England had economic and political reasons
 Henry wanted an annulment for his marriage, but did not get it
 Henry removed papal jurisdiction from England and made himself supreme head of the Church in England
 English church retained catholic practices
 Church land came under crown rule
 England transformed into a modern state
 Most clergy complacent, but some started the Pilgrimage of Grace, largest rebellion in English history
 Ireland was strongly catholic
 == Upholding protestantism in England ==
 Protestant ideas influenced life strongly
 Book of common prayer approved by parliament
 Mary Tudor ruled briefly and attempted to bring back Catholicism
 Elizabeth succeeded Mary and brought about religious stability
 Some wanted more elements of Catholicism in the Church of England
 Others wanted none at all: Puritans
 == Calvinism ==
 John Calvin born in 1509
 Converted to protestantism
 Taught predestination: God decided at the beginning of time who would be saved and who wouldn't
 Set up theocracy in Geneva
 Became a model for reformers across Europe
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+++ b/Euro/Chapter
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 MING
 	- Primarily Chinese
 	- Open trade with Europe (conditional)
 		- Time of year
 		- Can only trade in Macao
 		- Under trade supervision
 	- 1st example of capitalism
 		- Don't want European goods
 		- Want European gold instead
 QING
 	- Primarily Mongolian
 	- Want European crops (wheat, corn, barley)
 == European Colonies in North America ==
 Did not encounter large, unified empires of Native Americans
 	- Many were aided by the Natives
 Did not have easy access to precious metals
 	- Had to focus on using other natural resources like wood, fish, fur, and farming
 Established later, beginning in the 1600s
 == France and England Get In On The Action ==
 New France
 	- France sent explorers to North America
 		- Jacques Cartier explored the St Lawrence River
 			- Claimed it for France
 		- Samuel de Champlain established the first permanent French colony in Quebec in 1608
 		- Found trading fur and fishing was more profitable than farming
 		- Population grew slowly
 English Colonies
 	- Focused on the Atlantic Coast
 		- First permanent settlement in Virginia at Jamestown
 		- Starvation and disease a threat
 		- Began growing cash-crops like tobacco
 	- Unlike the French colonies, some English came for religious freedom
 		- Pilgrims arrived in the 1620s, signed the mayflower compact
 	- Different economies developed according to the region
 == French and Indian War ==
 England and France both wanted control of the Ohio River Valley
 	- French built a fort, English militia attacked
 	- Both sides rallied Native Americans for support
 		- The British defeated the French when they captured Quebec
 Results: Treaty of Paris
 	- Britain got all of Canada from the French and Florida from the Spanish
 	- Spain got the Louisiana Purchase
 		- New France disappeared
 == The Age of Early European Explorations and Conquests ==
 -- Earlier Explorations --
 1. Islam & the Spice Trade -> Malacca
 2. A New Player -> Europe
 	- Marco Polo, 1271
 	- Expansion becomes a state enterprise -> monarchs had the authority & the resources
 	- Better seaworthy ships
 -- Motives for European Exploration --
 1. Crusades -> by-pass intermediaries to get to Asia
 2. Renaissance -> curiosity about other lands and peoples
 3. Reformation -> refugees & missionaries
 4. Monarchs seeking new sources of revenue
 5. Techbological advances
 -- 3 G's of Exploration --
 - God, Gold, and Glory
 	- God: Many of the people in unexplored lands were "heathens" who could be converted to Christianity
 	- Gold: New routes and land meant riches for the people and countries who discovered them
 	- Glory: Great fame for the explorers
 -- New Maritime Technologies --
 Hartman Astrolabe
 Better Maps
 Sextant
 Mariner's Compass
 Caravel - Portuguese ship
 Flintlock pistols
 -- Prince Henry, the Navigator --
 School for Navigation, 1419
 -- Portuguese Maritime Empire --
 1. Exploring the west coast of Africa
 2. Bartolomeo Dias, 1487
 3. Vasco da Gama, 1498
 	- Calicut
 4 Admiral Alfonso de Albuquerque (Goa, 1510; Malacca, 1511)
 == Pre-Columbian Civilizations ==
 Olmec
  |
  V
 Maya
  |
  V
 Aztec
 Mayans
 	- Location: Yucatan Peninsula
 		- Tropical climate, used slash and burn agriculture
 Classic period from 250 AD to 900 AD
 	- Made up of many city-states, was run by a hereditary king
 		- Fought with each other for territory and power
 == Mayan Culture ==
 Beauty
 	- Prized flat foreheads and pointy teeth
 Accurate calendar
 	- The most sophisticated in the ancient world
 	- Accomplished astronomers as well, could accurately predict eclipses and other events
 Polytheistic
 	- Worshipped nature gods and practiced human sacrifice
 Most advanced writing system in the New World
 == Trade and downfall ==
 Mayans traded extensively
 	- especially cocoa beans
 	- mostly by sea
 	- evidence of goods from halfway across the globe
 Cities abandoned
 	- around 900 AD
 		- drought, overpopulation, exhaustion of resources and warfare
 	- 1 million people still speak Mayan languages
 == Aztecs ==
 Location
 	- Controlled an empire in south-central Mexico
 		- Major city Tenochtitlan in the same place as Mexico City
 		- Saw an eagle perched on a cactus with a snake in its mouth
 			- Farme dcorn, beans, squash, potatoes, etc
 Height of power: 1400s and 1500s
 	- Warlike culture helped them conquer nearby groups and demanded tribute from them
 		- 500 small states with 5-6 million people
 == Culture ==
 Bustling market places were at the center of the economy
 	- 50,000 people came out on major market days
 Religion
 	- Polytheistic, a weak sun-god Nanauatl
 		- Aztecs believed they had to make sacrafices to keep him moving
 	- Quetzalcoatl, the feathered serpent, created man
 		- Fair skinned, light eyes and red hair, Aztecs believed he would come again
 == Cortes defeats the Aztecs ==
 As a landowner in Cuba, he heard about wealth in Mexico
 	- Went for the 3 G's
 		- God, gold, and glory
 Aided by Malinche
 	- Native American, born to a chief and well educated
 	- Given as a slave to Cortes
 	- Played a key role in Spanish history
 		- Her name is synonomous with traitor in Mexico
 == Cortes took advantage of disunity ==
 Many groups were unhappy with their Aztec overlords
 	- Malinche was aware of this problem and told Cortes
 		- Cortes made alliances
 Malinche also set up a meeting with Moctezuma
 	- Moctezuma thought the Spanish may have been gods
 		- Gave them lavish gifts, housed them in the palace
 Cortes imprisoned Moctezuma in his own palace
 	- Under Alvarado, the Spanish killed the Aztecs during a religious festival
 	- Smallpox also decimated the Aztecs
 By 1521, the Spanish conquered Tenochtitlan and killed the last emperor
 == The Inca ==
 Location: the Andes Mountains of Chile and Peru
 	- Used terrace farming, naturally rich in gold and silver
 Advanced architecture
 	- Withstood high altitude and natural disasters
 	- No mortar used
 	- 14,000 miles of road
 Unique communication
 	- Through a series of knotted ropes
 == History repeats itself ==
 Stories of a gold rich kingdom attracted conquistador Pizarro
 	- The Inca King Atahualpa was tricked into a "peaceful meeting"
 		- He was then kidnapped by Pizarro and his men for random
 	- Aatahualpa's people paid the equivalent of 50 million dollars
 		- The spanish strangled him anyway
 == Effects of the conquestadors ==
 Huge new Empire for Spain
 	- Great wealth and power as well
 Massive loss of life for Natives
 	- Many doubted their gods
 	- Survivors were enslaved
 Forever changed the cultural and economic landscape
 == Portugal Establishes Trading Posts ==
 - Sailed around Africa to access the spice islands
 - Built coastal forts
 	- Why?
 		- A place to stop, repair, and restock
 		- Trade for ivory, gold, slaves, etc
 		- Not colonies, just forts
 - Took over trade in existing cities
 	- Mombasa and Malindi, expelled Arabs
 - Did not go inland
 	- Limited knowledge and resources
 	- Repelled by Africans
 		- As a result, the Portuguese Empire declined by 1600
 == From Spices to Slaves ==
 - Slaves have been used for centuries by peoples all over the world
 - in the 1500s and 1600s, Europeans became involved with the African Slave Trade
 	- Why?
 		- Profitable
 		- Labor needed on plantations in the New World
 == How did Europeans obtain Slaves? ==
 - African groups on the coast would go to war with groups inside Africa
 - Captives/enemies would be captured and sold at the coast
 	- Europeans would give them textiles, rum, tobacco, and most importantly weapons and gunpowder
 == African Resistance ==
 - Affonso I: King of Kongo
 	- Brought Christianity to the Kongo but could not end the slave trade
 - Religious leader of the Futa Toro forbade the transport of slaves through their land
 	- Traders used a new route, slaves were sold just as easily
 - Ex: Oyo Empire
 	- Built an army using slave trade wealth, used it to conquer neighboring peoples
 == Outher countries follow Portugal's example ==
 - The Dutch established a permanent settlement in Cape Town (S. Africa)
 	- Religion led them to see africans as inferior
 	- CALVINISTS (believed they were the chosen ones)
 - French set up a fort in W. Africa by 1700
 - England sponsored exploration in Africa along the Nile
 == Portugal builds their empire in the east ==
 - Portuguese explorers had been the first to find a sea route to India
 	- Also the first to seize control there
 		- Mughal Empire (Muslims) controlled N. India
 		- Albuquerque and other Portuguese explorers made alliances with the southern Indian princes
 		- Took control of the island of Goa and Malacca
 - Portugal created a trading empire by building "outposts"
 	- Controlled the spice trade in the 1500s
 	- Attempted to convert the natives, but harsh methods were not successful
 == The Dutch ==
 - From the Netherlands, a small country in Northern Europe
 	- A successful voyage in 1599 led the Dutch to increase trading
 	- Their settlement at Cape Town gave them access to the Spice Islands
 	- Dutch East India Company was formed
 		- Had the power to control its ports and negotiations unlike other traders
 		- Dominated the region
 - The Dutch took Malacca from the Portuguese
 	- Opened trade with China
 	- Had a monopoly on spice island trade in the 1600s
 	- Declined when the power of England and France grew
 == The Spanish ==
 - Magellan had claimed the Philippines on his voyage around the globe
 	- The islands were not united, easily conquered
 	- Named for King Philip II of Spain
 	- Missionaries tried to convert them to Catholicism
 	- Acted as a link for Spanish trade
 		- Silver from American colonies traded for Chinese goods
 == Mughals Fall, British Rise ==
 - A number of factors weakened the Mughal
 	- Civil war, corruption
 - The French and British both established East India Companies like the Dutch
 	- Also raised armies of sepoys
 - British eventually control india
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 # {} Before Peter
 ### == Stuck in the Past ==
 Russia was still very medieval
 	- Isolated from many of the developments in Europe
 	- Unaffected by the European Renaissance
 Romanov Dynasty began in 1613, centralized authority under a Tsar
 	- Nobles had elected Michael Romanov
 		- He and his successors brought stability and some centralization
 # {} Peter & Modernization
 ### == Peter the Great ==
 Only 10 in 1682 when he came to the throne
 	- Shared it with his brother Ivan until his death in 1696
 		- Tumultuous beginning to his reign
 	- Convinced he must secure power from the streltsy and boyars and increase the Russian Military
 1697 he journeyed throughout Europe
 	- Especially impressed by the maritime powers
 	- Recruited a group and brought them back to Russia
 		- Used them to westernize his country
 ### == Modernizing by Force ==
 Enforced autocratic rule - rule with unlimited authority
 	- Forced the boyars to be civil or military officials (Table of Ranks)
 Cultural changes as well
 	- Russian style made them the butt jokes in Europe
 	- Boyars were forced to shave their bears, wear western style clothes, and mix with women in public
 	- To ensure noble cooperation, he strengthened noble control over their lands
 		- Stricter control over serfs spread the practice
 		- Some serfs were used by his government as well - soldiers and laborers
 ### == Might Makes Right ==
 Pushed through reforms modeled after the west
 	- Technology, education, simplified alphabet
 	- Mercantilist policies: encouraged exports and manufacturing
 		- A trade surplus is necessary for healthy economy
 Put down resistance with gruesome displays
 Expanded his control to include the church
 	- Abolished the patriarch, set up the Holy Synod which would govern the church with his influence
 ### == Expanding Russian Influence ==
 Military - largest standing army in Europe and a modern navy
 	- Goal: attain a warm water port on the Black Sea
 		- Unable to defeat the Ottomans
 		- Defeated the Swedes in the Great Northern War and ports on the Baltic and a place in European politics
 		- Won lands to the west north of Manchuria and sent explorers along the Bering Strait
 Built St. Petersburg
 	- Constructed "window to the west" on the Baltic sea
 ### == Was Peter Successful? ==
 Attained warm water ports
 Built a large army and modern navy
 Increased power over nobles
 	- Some ground was lost after his death
 Expanded holdings to the pacific
 Left no heir
 Serfdom increased
 	- Widened the gap with Western Europe
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 # {} Before Louis
 #### -- Henry IV Brings Peace --
 Reformed France
 	- In doing so, expanded his influence into every part of French life
 		- Drained swamps, built or restored roads and bridges
 		- Removed corrupt or incompetent officials
 		- Reclaimed lands that had been taken by nobility, strictly collected taxes
 		- Reduced noble influence, thereby extending his own
 #### -- Cardinal Richelieu --
 Henry IV was assassinated, leaving the throne to Louis XIII, who was 9
 	- Cardinal Richelieu became the chief minister, set to work strengthening the King's power
 		- In escennce, he ruled France from 1624 to 1642
 		- Took away power from the nobles, increased their dependence on the king
 		- Sent out indentants 
 		- 1641 - An edict took away the independent power of the parlements
 #### -- Cardinal Mazarin --
 Louis XIV inherited the throne at only 5 years old in 1643
 Cardinal Mazarin picked up where Richelieu had left off (died in 1642)
 	- Continued to advice Louis XIV after he came of age
 		- Helped the throne gain power by establishing an efficient administration
 # {} Louis XIV
 #### -- The "Sun King" --
 Louis took power at the age of 23
 Believed that he had a divine right to rule
 	- Claimed the sun as his symbol
 		- Absolute power in war, peace, religion, and economy
 		- "I'etat, c'est moi - I am the state"
 	- Images of the sun were found everywhere
 Goals
 	- Make the monarchy powerful, but give nobles influence locally
 	- Never once called the Estates General
 	- Built the strongest army in Europe
 	- Appointed intendants
 		- Collected taxes, recruited soldiers, carried out policy
 		- Middle class, loyal families
 #### -- Jean-Baptiste Colbert --
 Raised to finance minister
 	- Taxes helped financed the king's wars and lifestyle
 	- Utilized mercantilism
 		- Used tarrifs to protect domestic industry
 		- Built up luxury goods industry in France
 		- Encouraged emigration to New France, source of raw materials
 Brought great wealth, not enough to outweigh huge expenses
 #### -- Building Versailles --
 Began as a royal hunting lodge
 Louis XIV transformed it to the most opulent palace in France
 	- Made it the seat of government
 	- Symbolized his wealth and power
 		- Daily life revolved around him like planets around the sun
 		= Immortalized himself as various Greek and Roman gods
 Rituals like the levee kept nobles competing for power
 	- These rituals were the only time many nobles got to make their requests of the king
 #### -- Louis XIV's reign --
 72 year reign made France the most powerful country in Europe
 Louis tried to expand France's borders and influence
 	- Other countries came together to keep the balance of power
 		- Made several alliances against France
 		- War of the Spanish Succession, they prevented the unification of France and Spain with the Grand Alliance
 #### -- Long Reign and the Ugly Side of Louis XIV --
 Renewed persecution of the Huguenots
 	- 1685: revoked the Edict of Nantes
 	- 100,000 Huguenots left France
 		- Lost many skilled workers and prosperous subjects
 		- A blow to the French economy and France's reputation
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+++ b/Euro/Chapter
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 # == CHAPTER 15 - AGE OF ABSOLUTISM ==
 # {} Chronology
 - ca 1500-1650 - Consolidation of Serfdom in Eastern Europe
 - 1533-1584 - Reign of Ivan the Terrible in Russia
 - 1589-1610 - Reign of Henry IV in France
 - 1598-1613 - Time of Troubles in France
 - 1620-1740 - Growth of Absolutism in Austria and Prussia
 - 1642-1649 - English Civil War, which ends with execution of Charles I
 - 1643-1715 - Reign of Louis XIV in France
 - 1653-1658 - Military rule in England under Oliver Cromwell (the Protectorate)
 - 1660 - Restoration of English Monarchy under Charles II
 - 1665-1683 - Jean-Baptiste Colbert applies mercantilism to France
 - 1670 - Charles II agrees to re-Catholicize England in secret agreement with Louis XIV
 - 1670-1671 - Cossack revolt led by Stenka Razin
 - ca. 1680-1750 - Construction of absolutist palaces
 - 1682 - Louis moves courts to Versailles
 - 1682-1725 - Reign of Peter the Great in Russia
 - 1683-1718 - Habsburgs push the Ottoman Turks from Hungary
 - 1685 - Edict of Nantes revoked in France
 - 1688-1889 - Glorious Revolution in England
 - 1701-1713 - War of the Spanish Succession
 # {} Seventeenth Century Crisis and Rebuilding
 Referred to as the Age of Crisis
 	- Religious
 	- Social
 	- Political
 	- etc
 Led to expansion of government, taxation, and military
 ## == The Social Order and Peasant Life ==
 Social hierarchy in most countries:
 	Monarch
 	Clergy (catholic countries)
 	Nobility
 	Merchants
 	Artisans
 	Peasants
 In Western Europe many peasants owned land
 In Eastern Europe most peasants were serfs
 ## == Famine and Economic Crisis ==
 Change in climate led to food shortages (just like before and during the plague)
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--- a/15/Parliament
+++ b/15/Parliament
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 James I
 Charles I
 Oliver Cromwell
 Charles II
 James II
 # {} Build up to the Civil War
 ## == King vs Parliament ==
 By 1500s
 	- Rights of Parliament
 		- Approve new taxes
 		- pass laws
 		- advise monarchs
 	- Rights of Kings
 		- Summon and dismiss Parliament
 		- Foreign policy
 		- name officials and judges
 		- control the Church of England
 ## == James 1 ==
 Elizabeth's cousin, James Stuart came to power after her death
 Unlike the Tudors, James pressed the issue of divine right
 	- Did not believe that he should have to consult parliament
 	- Parliament, especially the House of Commons, resisted the control of an absolute monarch
 ### == James Avoids Parliament ==
 James decided to call them as little as possible
 	- Had to find new ways of collecting revenue
 	- Levied new custom duties called impositions
 	- Insisted on living an extravagant lifestyle
 	- Conflicts with Puritans as well
 ## == Charles I ==
 Charles I inherited the throne in 1625
 	- Much like his father
 		- Divine right, absolute monarch
 		- Pressed the citizens for more money
 			- Tried to collect discontinued taxes, property owners were forced to pay "forced loans" - imprisoned those who did not pay
 	- Imprisoned dissidents without trial
 1628: need for funds required him to call Parliament
 ## == The Petition of Right ==
 Parliament assembled and presented Charles I with the Petition of Right
 	- Required him to sign it before they would approve any new taxes
 	- The Petition:
 		- No new taxes w/o Parliament's consent, no forced loans
 		- King could not jail anyone without legal justification
 		- King could not quarter troops in private homes
 Charles signed the petition, but then dissolved Parliament
 	- Ignored the petition and did not call Parliament again for 11 years
 ## == Charles vs Puritans ==
 Could have ruled without Parliament but...
 	- Charles and Archbishop Laud put reforms in Anglican Church
 	- Forced clergy to follow strict rules
 		- Some thought he was trying to bring back Catholic rituals
 	- Tried to impose Anglican practices in Calvinist Scotland - the Book of Common Prayer
 		- Caused a border skirmish which Charles needed money for
 ## == The Long Parliament ==
 The Long Parliament began in November 1640 and lasted until 1660
 	- Concerned with limiting the King's power
 		- Abolished the royal courts
 		- No more than 3 years could elapse between the meetings
 		- Tried and executed the kings' chief ministers, Laud among them
 		- Declared Parliament could not be dissolved without their own consent
 ## == Charles vs Parliament ==
 Parliament condemned Charles as a tyrant
 Charles struck back
 	- In 1642, he brought troops into Parliament
 		- Meant to arrest certain opponents
 # {} The Civil War
 ## == Civil War ==
 Cavaliers vs Roundheads
 	- The King's army was known as the Cavaliers - mounted aristocrats
 	- House of Commons passed the Militia Ordinance
 		- Allowed parliament to have an army of their own
 		- Known as roundheads
 	- English Civil War began (1642-1649)
 ## == Cromwell Organizes the Roundheads ==
 Organized the Roundhead army according to skill rather than rank/social status
 	- New Model Army
 The Cavaliers were defeated militarily by 1645
 Charles was put on trial in 1648 and executed in 1649
 ## == The British Commonwealth ==
 The House of Commons then abolished the monarchy, the House of Lords, and the Anglican Church
 A Puritan Republic was established under Cromwell
 	- Led to an uprising in Ireland and Scotland
 	- Cromwell crushed the uprising and exiled Catholics
 - Levellers caused problems by calling for equality across classes and the sexes
 # {} Aftermath
 ## == Lord Protector ==
 Cromwell dissolved Parliament when they asked him to disband his army, named himself "Lord Protector" in 1654
 	- Became a dictator in practice through his military control
 Changes were also made to reflect strict Puritan views
 	- Set aside Sunday for religious observance
 	- Closed theaters and taverns
 	- Encouraged education and marriage
 ## == The Commonwealth Ends ==
 Cromwell died in 1658, and Puritan control waned
 	- Many tired of strict rules
 "Restoration" - new parliament placed Charles II on the throne
 	- Agreed to respect the Petition of Right
 	- England reverted back to the status quo of 1652
 		- Re-established the Church of England
 		- Also sympathized with Catholics, Parliament passed the Test Act against him
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 # {} Pre-Revolution
 #### Important terms
 - Glorious Revolution - invasion of England by William and Mary
 - Toleration Act - act of Parliament that granted freedom to Protestant sects but not Catholics
 - Bill of Rights - Set up the basis for a constitutional monarchy
 ## == The Glorious Revolution ==
 Charles II brother, James II inherited the throne in 1685
 	- Openly Catholic, people feared he would make England Catholic again
 		- Parliament hatched a plan to make sure it didn't happen
 In 1688, The Glorious Revolution occurred
 	- James' daughter and her Dutch Protestant husband (William and Mary) were invited to take the English throne
 	- They landed with their army, and James fled to France
 		- Bloodless
 ## == English Bill of Rights ==
 William and Mary signed the English Bill of Rights before they were crowned
 	- They ruled a limited Monarchy
 	- Ensured Parliament was superior to the new monarchs
 		- Parliament must be called regularly
 		- Power of the purse
 		- Could not interfere in debates or suspend laws
 		- No Roman Catholic could rule
 		- Restated basic rights for the English
 Toleration Act
 	- Limited religious freedom for some Protestant sects, not Catholics
 # {} Post Revolution
 ## == Britain Becomes a Constitutional Government ==
 A government whose power is limited by law
 Political Parties
 	- At first, class based Tories (aristocrats who promoted tradition) and Whigs (favored Parliament, business, and urban interests)
 Cabinet: formed of the leaders of Parliament who played an advisory role to the King
 Prime Minister: the head of cabinet
 	- The leader of the majority party in the House of Commons
 	- His power later exceeded the monarch
 ### == Not So Fast... ===
 Parliament was not quite an example of democracy
 	- Landowners still held most of the power (oligarchy)\
 		- Used it to their advantage, detrimental to poor and landless
 	- Very few could vote
 	- Middle class was growing
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 ### == Characteristics of the Thirty Years War ==
 The Holy Roman Empire was the battleground
 At the beginning, it was Catholics vs Protestants
 At the end, it was Habsburg power that was threatened
 Resolved by the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648
 # {} Religious Phases
 ### == The Bohemian Phase: 1618-1622 ==
 Ferdinand II inherited Bohemia
 	- The Bohemians hated him
 	- Ferdinand refused to tolerate Protestants
 	- Defenestration of Prague, May 1618
 	- Bohemia named a new king, Frederick II
 ### == The Bohemian Phase ==
 Ferdinand II becomes Holy Roman Emperor
 	- Frederick II borrowed an army from Bavaria
 	- Frederick lost his hands in the fighting
 ### == The Danish Phase ==
 Ferdinand II tried to end all resistance
 	- Tried to crush Protestant northern Holy Roman Empire
 	- Ferdinand II used Albrecht von Wallenstein for the army
 	- Wallenstein defeated Protestants in north
 Edict of Restitution (1629):
 	- Restored to Catholics all lands lost since 1552
 	- Deprived all protestants, except Lutherans, of their religious and political rights
 German Princes feared Ferdinand, he fired Wallenstein in an effort to calm them
 # {} Self-interest Phases
 ### == The Swedish Phase ==
 France and Sweden now get involved
 	- Both want to stop Habsburg power
 	- Sweden led the charge
 	- France priovided support
 Gustavus Adolphus invaded the HR Empire
 	- Ferdinand II brought back Wallenstein
 	- Swedish advance was stopped
 German princes still feared Ferdinand II
 Wallenstein assassinated to appease them
 ### == The French Phase ==
 France and Sweden switched roles
 All countries in Europe now participated
 This phase was the most destructive
 	- German towns decimated
 	- Agriculture collapsed, famine resulted
 	- 8 million dead, 1/3 of the population [from 21 million in 1618 to 13.5 million in 1648]
 	- Caused massive inflation
 	- Trade was crippled throughout Europe
 # {} End
 ### == The Peace of Westphalia ==
 Political Provisions
 	- Each German prince became free from any kind of control by the Holy Roman Emperor
 	- The United Provinces (Dutch Netherlands) became officially independent, so. part remained a sp. possession
 	- France recieved most of the German speaking province of Alsace-Lorraine
 	- Sweden got lands in Northern Germany on the baltic & black sea coasts
 	- Switzerland became totally independent of the Holy Roman Emperor, Swiss Confederation
 	- Sweden won a voice in the Diet of the Holy Roman Empire
 	- Brandenburg got important territories on the North Sea and in central Germany
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 # {} Effects and Background
 ## == Effects of the Scientific Revolution ==
 People looked at the world in a new way
 	- Believed in the power of the human mind and the rationality of the physical world
 	- Expanded knowledge solved old problems in science
 If natural laws applied to science, why not societal problems?
 # {} Thinkers
 ## == The Birth of the Social Sciences ==
 Growth of the print culture
 	- People were expected to be more and more well read
 Scientific laws applied to human behavior and societal problems
 	- People began to study it like science
 	- Psychology, sociology, economics, etc
 Immanuel Kant used the word "enlightenment" to describe the change
 ## == Thomas Hobbes ==
 The Earliest of the enlightenment thinkers
 	- Spent a lot of time with prominent scientists
 Wrote *Leviathan*, he outlined his view of the inherent nature of man
 	- In the natural condition, man is cruel, greedy, and selfish
 		- All our behavior is driven by the drive to increase pleasure and minimize pain
 If not controlled, people would destroy each other
 In order to escape this eventuality, we enter into a social contract
 	- People give up their freedom (personal rights) to live in an ordered society
 	- A power government is necessary
 	- His preference - absolute monarchy: the dangers of anarchy are greater than tyranny
 ## == John Locke ==
 A contemporary of Thomas Hobbes, he criticized absolutism
 	- Challenged the patriarchal model
 All humans are born with a *tabula rasa*
 	- Our personality is a product of our experiences
 More optimistic view of human nature
 	- Believed man is basically moral and reasonable
 		- In our natural state we could live peaceably, but competition arises that needs a political authority to sort out
 Humans have natural rights - life, liberty, and property
 The purpose of government is to protect people's natural rights
 	- Therefore, government should have limited power and should be accepted by all citizens
 	- Against absolute monarchy, believed the characteristics described by Hobbes occurred when people were being enslaved
 	- Encouraged revolution when the government violated the rights it was supposed to protect
 Also encouraged religious toleration
 	- The function of the government should be to preserve property, not make religious decisions
 	- Did not extend it to Roman Catholics
 		- Claimed they had an allegiance to a foreign prince
 	- Also did not extend to atheists or non-Christians
 		- Could not be trusted to keep their word
 ## == The Philosophes ===
 French philosophers who used scientific methods to understand and improve human society
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 ## == What is a revolution? ==
 An overthrow of a government or social order for a new system
 	- Governmental Overthrow
 		- American Revolution
 		- French Revolution
 	- Social Order
 		- A momentous shift in people's way of live
 		- Usually relating to technology
 		- Industrial revolution
 ## == Life Before the Industrial Revolution ==
 Most people were farmers
 	- Hand-held tools, no electricity
 	- Provided for themselves
 		- Made their own clothes, grew their own food
 	- Traveled by horse and carriage, rarely left home
 ## == First Agricultural Revolution ==
 Over 10,000 years ago
 	- Occurred when people learned to farm
 	- Humanity went from hunter-gatherers to living in settled villages
 	- Improved quality of life but after farming stayed mostly the same
 ## == A Chain Reaction ==
 Uncertain food supply and a high population
 	- Poor harvests meant high prices
 		- French Revolution
 During the 18th century, prices rose steadily
 	- Only benefitted wealthy landowners
 	- Farmers began to innovate
 ## == Changes to Farming First ==
 In the 1700s, the Dutch made changes
 	- Dikes
 	- Combined fields
 	- Fertilized with manure
 English made improvements as well
 	- Mixed soils
 	- Different crop rotations
 		- Clover and turnips
 	- Tull's seed drill
 Enclosure system
 	- In the Middle Ages, peasants shared land for grazing
 	- By the 1700s, farmers claimed that land and surrounded it with fences
 		- Bigger fields meant more output
 ## == Upsetting the Social Order ==
 Changing goals
 	- Old goal: produce enough for local food supply
 	- New goal: pursue a profit
 Many peasants were displaced by enclosure
 	- Independent operations had required grazing in communal fields
 ## == Better Farms Mean... ==
 More food ->
 	- More population
 		- Doubled in England in a century
 	- Less need for farmers
 Many peasants lost their jobs
 	- Migrated to the city in search of work
 ## == Better Farming + New Technology ==
 Coal
 	- Energy
 		- The steam and condensation operated pumps and other machinery
 Iron
 	- Coal was used to smelt better quality iron
 		- Burned hotter
 	- Molten iron purified and poured into forms - cheaper and more versatile
 	- The iron itself was put to use in steam engines, bridges, and other industrial projects
 ## == Improving Textile Production ==
 From the putting-out system to factories
 	- Putting-out system: system before the industrial revolution where peasants made cloth in their homes
 	- Cottage industry
 	- slow
 New inventions sped up the process
 	- Flying shuttle and Water Frame - fast weaving
 	- Spinning Jenney - fast spinning
 	- Cotton Gin - cleaned cotton at a fast rate
 Factories were born
 	- Why?
 		- Machines were too big/expensive for home use
 		- Large sheds were built to house them and people would come to use them
 	- Built near running water to use as energy
 	- Produced huge quantities
 		- Cotton was 50% of English exports by 1830
 ## == Transportation ==
 Needed better ways to transport goods
 	- Entrepreneurs built turnpikes, canals, and bridges
 		- Made money by charging for their use or benefitting from increased trade
 		- Canals important until trains surpassed them
 Steam Locomotive
 	- Used a steam engine to power new trains
 	- Could take a more direct route than rivers
 	- Cheap and fast
 	- First line completed in England in 1830
 ## == A Positive Chain Reaction ==
 New machines
 Cheaper goods
 More consumers
 More demand for products
 ## == It Began in Britain ==
 Location
 	- An island with many rivers
 		- Good for trade and water power
 Natural Resources
 	- Plentiful in coal and iron
 		- Used for energy and construction
 Population
 	- A skilled, plentiful workforce
 	- A need/desire for goods
 		- First fashion industry
 A wealthy middle class
 	- Overseas investments
 	- Entrepreneurs had money to invest
 		- Sound banking and credit
 Stable government and strong navy
 	- Good conditions for trade
 	- Could protect their exports
 Functioning religion that promotes tolerance
 Overseas colonies
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 ### == 3 estates ==
 1st - Clergy
 2nd - Nobility
 	Held top jobs
 3rd - Everyone else
 	Bourgeoisie to peasants
 Known as the **ancien regime**
 ### == The Third Estate ==
 Included a huge range of French citizens
 	- Most were rural peasants
 	- Others were poor, urban workers
 Common grievances
 	- Top jobs closed to them
 	- Bore the burden of taxes
 	- Even small price increases could be crippling
 ### == Hard Economic Times ==
 Huge national debt
 	- Contributing factors
 		- Louis XIV's lavish lifestyle
 		- Deficit spending
 		- 7 Years War
 		- Overwhelming interest payments
 Unsuccessful reforms
 	- Louis XVI was weak and Necker was dismissed after suggesting Louis tax the 1st and 2nd estates
 Calling the Estates General
 	- A body made of representatives from the three estates
 		- Did not have the power of the purse
 	- Each estate was asked to prepare a **cahier**
 ### == From Estates General to National Assembly ==
 Traditionally, each estate got one vote
 	- 1. Clergy, 2. Nobles, 3. Everyone else
 		- Unequal - 96% of population only had 33% of the say
 The king and his ministers tried to strengthen the 3rd estate
 The estates had to decide how votes would be counted in the new session
 Members that represented the 3rd Estate thought all the estates should vote together
 	- A standoff ensued
 June 1789: the Third Estate declared themselves the National Assembly
 June 19th - the Second Estate voted to join them
 ### == Tennis Court Oath ==
 When the King locked them out of their building, they met in an indoor tennis court
 Vowed to continue to meet until there was a "just constitution"
 ### == The Bastille ==
 A symbol of Tyranny
 Parisians believed there were weapons inside
 	- They were forming a militia to protect the national assembly
 	- A mob gathered to claim them
 	- First major conflict of the revolution
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+++ b/Euro/Chapter
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 ### == Cause ==
 The French, British, and Natives all claimed land west of the Appalachians
 ### == Early War ==
 Began when George Washington ambushed a French scouting party in Pennsylvania in 1754
 	- Built and defended Fort Necessity
 The French had a better relationship with the natives
 	- Colonized by building forts and trading with the Indians
 ### == The Albany Plan of Union ==
 In 1754 the Northern English colonies held a meeting in Albany
 Goals:
 	- Strengthen ties with the Iroquois League, a coalition of 6 native groups in the northeast
 	- Created a united war effort from the colonies
 They accepted the Albany Plan of Union
 	- Written by Ben Franklin
 	- Proposed that the colonies come together in a permanent alliance
 Rejected by the colonial governments
 	- Unwilling to give up power to a central government
 ### == Bad Start for the British ==
 The French had early victories
 	- Defeated Washington at Fort Necessity
 The British fought in straight lines, the Natives and French hid
 	- The French were able to win despite being outnumbered
 ### == British Turn the Tide ==
 William Pitt became prime minister
 	- Helped raise taxes to fund the war
 	- Troops were better prepared with better leaders
 British took over many French forts
 The Iroquois decided to support the British
 ### == Fall of Quebec ==
 Quebec was the capital of "New France"
 	- French colonies in the new world
 British commander Wolfe laid siege to the city
 	- By September, he was running out of time
 	- Used an undefended path up the cliff
 	- A battle led to heavy French losses and both commanders died
 The city surrendered within a few days
 ### == Treaty of Paris (1763) ==
 British forces then took Montreal and seized the remaining forts
 European representatives met in France to create a peace treaty
 Ended the French and Indian War
 	- Also ended the conflict known as the Seven Years War
 Terms of the peace:
 	- The British got all French land east of the Mississippi except New Orleans
 	- The British got Florida in return for giving Cuba back to Spain
 	- The Spanish got all French land west of the Mississippi and New Orleans
 ### == Side Effects of the War ==
 British and the colonists resented each other
 	- British felt the colonists had not done enough to support the war
 	- Colonists lost respect for the British military and felt disrespected by the British
 		- They wanted to expand and prosper without British interference
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--- a/Euro/Chapter
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+++ b/(1789-1791).md
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 ### == Contributing Factors ==
 The dismissal of Necker on July 11th
 	- Popular with the 3rd Estate, contributed to the fall of the Bastille
 Famine in France
 	- Crops failed in the "Little Ice Age"
 	- Bread prices rose by over 88%, people were forced to spend most of their income to eat
 		- Fueled anger towards nobles and taxation
 ### == The Great Fear ==
 The Third Estate developed conspiracy theories about the famine
 The National Assembly met to stop the spreading chaos on August 4th, 1789
 	- Prearranged for several nobles to give up their feudal rights
 		- Made all French Citizens equal
 		- Abolished the ancien regime
 ### == Establishing Equality ==
 On August 25th, the National Assembly published the Declaration of the Rights of Man
 	- Based in part on earlier American documents
 		- All men free and equal
 		- Due process of law, innocent until proven guilty
 		- Freedom of religion
 		- Right to property
 ### == Women Take Action ==
 Louis XVI hesitated to ratify the new changes
 October 5th, 1789 - 6000 armed women marched to Versailles demanding bread
 	- They refused to leave until the king returned with them to Paris
 ### == New Constitution, New Government ==
 Needed to fulfill the Tennis Court Oath
 Cosntitution of 1791
 	- Limited monarchy
 		- Could veto, but not halt legislation
 	- Legislative Assembly with power
 		- Make all laws
 		- Collect taxes
 		- Decide on issues of war and peace
 	- Voting 
 	- Rights for tax-paying males over 25
 	- Created 83 departments
 	- Uniform courts, outlawed outdated punishment
 	- Only propertied males may vote
 Olympe de Gougues outraged women were not included
 	- Wrote the Declaration of the Rights of Women
 ### == Solving the Financial Crisis ==
 Much of the French debt was owed to the bourgeoisie
 	- The national assembly (largely made of the bourgeoisie) worked to solve the financial crisis
 		- One solution - take over and sell church lands
 The Civil Constitution of the Clergy
 	- Bishops and priests became elected, salaried officials
 		- Ended papal authority in France
 	- Required clergy to take an oath
 		- Many refused, people were forced to choose between religion and revolution
 ### == Louis' Escape Attempt ==
 June 1791: the King and his family tried to flee Paris
 	- Disguised as servants, made it as far as Varennes
 	- Discovered when he was compared to French currency
 	- Appeared to be a traitor
 		- The constitutional monarchy would not last
 ### == The French Plague ==
 Emigres: over 16000 aristocrats that left France
 	- Spoke with other leaders about their harrowing lives in France
 	- Caused other European monarchs to turn againt the French revolution
 		- Feared it would spread to their lands
 		- Anticipated escalating violence
 The Declaration of Pilnitz
 	- Issued by Austria and Prussia
 		- Claimed they would intervene to protect the monarchy if the other European powers agreed 
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 		{"id":"24d4f8fb0a171a7f","type":"text","text":"# CH 15","x":1080,"y":-1520,"width":1340,"height":70,"color":"1"},
 		{"id":"d9b5607c8828a7db","type":"file","file":"AP Euro/Chapter 15/Absolutism.md","x":1080,"y":-1400,"width":400,"height":400,"color":"1"},
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 		{"id":"9a2243401abf6c3c","type":"file","file":"AP Euro/Chapter 15/Post Cromwell.md","x":2020,"y":-1400,"width":400,"height":400,"color":"1"},
 		{"id":"304a99897ebcafc9","type":"file","file":"AP Euro/Chapter 15/Parliament and the English Monarchy.md","x":1550,"y":-920,"width":400,"height":400,"color":"1"},
 		{"id":"74f25bd91efde749","type":"file","file":"AP Euro/Chapter 15/Chapter 15 Textbook Notes.md","x":2020,"y":-920,"width":400,"height":400,"color":"1"},
 		{"id":"830a68356ae0d928","type":"file","file":"AP Euro/Chapter 15/Thirty Years War.md","x":1080,"y":-920,"width":400,"height":400,"color":"1"},
 		{"id":"3ac8f4417e562d7b","type":"text","text":"# CH 19","x":-800,"y":-920,"width":870,"height":70,"color":"5"},
 		{"id":"26f9025fac5d7b47","type":"file","file":"AP Euro/Chapter 19/French and Indian War.md","x":-800,"y":-780,"width":400,"height":400,"color":"5"},
 		{"id":"b9054272674a8136","type":"file","file":"AP Euro/Chapter 19/3 Headed Monster.canvas","x":-330,"y":-780,"width":400,"height":400,"color":"5"},
 		{"id":"285b03cc08be4761","type":"file","file":"AP Euro/Chapter 19/The Moderate Phase (1789-1791).md","x":-800,"y":-300,"width":400,"height":400,"color":"5"},
 		{"id":"3ac49d56613a9613","type":"file","file":"AP Euro/Chapter 19/Causes of the French Revolution.md","x":-330,"y":-300,"width":400,"height":400,"color":"5"},
 		{"id":"4a3c61b25a585fb4","type":"text","text":"# CH 16","x":140,"y":-920,"width":840,"height":70,"color":"2"},
 		{"id":"67fac4c7a3cfed7d","type":"file","file":"AP Euro/Chapter 16/The Enlightenment.md","x":140,"y":-800,"width":400,"height":400,"color":"2"},
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 		{"id":"4f5a143378046dd8","type":"text","text":"# CH 17","x":140,"y":-320,"width":840,"height":70,"color":"4"},
 		{"id":"2209dd2b7a477cc9","type":"file","file":"AP Euro/Chapter 17/The Beginning of the Industrial Age.md","x":140,"y":-200,"width":840,"height":280,"color":"4"}
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--- a/BioCosmo/Chapter
+++ b/BioCosmo/Chapter
@ -0,0 +1,44 @@
 # {} 9
 There is no doubt among scientists that we originated from Africa
 	300,000 YA        - homo sapiens emerged in the fossil record
 	120,000-60,000 YA - Modern homo sapiens emerged
 	More complex stone tools, Rituals, dense populations, trade networks
 	**What happened?**
 Non human animal communication involves linear order between sound and signs, while human language is hierarchical
 First humans emerged in Norther Africa around 120-60K YA
 Genetics says we descend from a few thousand or hundred individuals
 Mitochondrial Eve
 	We receive mitochondria from our mothers. Over time there are mutations that geneticists can measure
 	"Eve" is the one woman we can all trace back to
 Y Chromosomal Adam
 	The man who we can trace our Y chromosome back to
 We all can trace our genetics back to one woman and one man
 Human self awareness is to be able to reflect on one's self
 # {} 11
 Monogenism - the idea that all humans descend from a literal first couple, Adam and Eve
 Today it seems unlikely, if not genetically impossible, that monogenism is true
 Polygenism - modern genetics shows we need to have came from a population of a few thousand
 Venerable Pius XII - Pope who wrote *Humani Generis*, which is the first Church response to Darwinism
 Pius said "it is not apparent how polygenism can be reconciled with original sin", only because the currently proposed theory of multiregionalism (ethnic groups evolving separately) blatantly went against the doctrine of original sin, but left the door open for future discoveries
 Modern science does not believe in multiregionalism, but instead knows definitively that we all originated in Africa
 # {} Souls
 Human souls are created directly by God, they do not evolve
 Whenever a new human is conceived, it must involve the direct creation of its soul
 Evolution according to the God given laws of the universe and due to the activity of creatures over millions of years, has yielded a situation where in our universe there is not a material creature for whom to be spiritual is its natural state, whose origins implicate God and require his direct involvement.
--- a/15/Consciousness.md
+++ b/15/Consciousness.md
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 ### == Consciousness and Sensory Awareness ==
 - Sights, sounds, smells (rain, teacher's voice, pizza in the cafe, etc)
 - Selective attention - focusing on particular stimulus and blocking out any distractions
 - Unusual stimuli ('99), intense stimuli (yellow shirt)
 ### == Direct Inner Awareness ==
 - Poolside, lakeside, oceanside - we are conscious of water before going in
 - Aware of emotions such as anger, of memories of friends, of abstract concepts such as fairness, justice, love, etc
 ### == Sense of Self ==
 - As we grow older, we are aware that we are unique individuals, separate from other people and surroundings
 - "Maevie likes playgrounds" - 3rd person
 ### == Levels of Consciousness ==
 - Preconscious - What did you wear yesterday? Ideas are not in your awareness now, but you could recall them if you had to
 - You can direct your inner awareness or attention to them
 ### == Unconscious Level ==
 - Information stored in unconscious/subconscious is unavailable to awareness under most circumstances
 - Freud
 - Defense mechanisms - we use these mental strategies to push painful memories out of our consciousness. This protects us from feelings of guilt, anxiety, and shame
 ### == Nonconscious Level ==
 - Basic biological functions:
 - Fingernails growing
 - Eyes adjusting to light
 - Blinking
 - Breathing/Exchanging CO2 w/ O2
 ### == Altered States of Consciousness ==
 Sense of self or sense of the world changes
 Sleeping
 Influence of drugs
 Meditation
 Hypnosis
 ### == Circadian Rhythms ==
 Latin: "About/around a day"
 Speaks to bodily changes throughout the day
 Body temp - lowest at 3am-5am
 Late afternoon (4-6) - HC practice - low energy in circadian rhythm
 ### == Stages of Sleep ==
 EEG - bata waves (short and quick) when awake, alpha waves when drowsy are longer and slower
 Stage 1: Light Sleep
 	Brain waves slow from alpha waves to theta waves, dreamlike images (powernap)
 Stage 1 - lasts 30-40 minutes
 Stage 2 - move into deep sleep
 Stages 3-4 - Sleep is deep and the brain produces delta waves - the slowest of the 4 patterns
 Stage 4 - greatest difficulty waking up in this stage
 ### == Levels of Sleep ==
 Half an hour of Stage 4 sleep
 We return to stages 3,2 and 1 (90:00)
 Our heartbeat now rises + we go to REM sleep
 ### == REM (not the band) ==
 Rapid eye movement - dream state
 Go through 5 stages of REM sleep
 Periods of REM get longer as night progresses
 NREM - Non REM sleep
 - 9-10:30 - NREM
 - 10:30-10:50 - 1st REM
 - 10:50-12:20 - NREM
 - 12:20-12:40 - 2nd REM
 - 12:40-2:10 - NREM
 - 2:10-2:30 - 3rd REM
 - 2:30-4:00 - NREM
 - 4:00-4:20 - 4th REM
 - 4:20-5:50 - NREM
 - 5:50-6:10 - 5th REM
 ### == Consciousness - Sensory Awareness ==
 ### == Consciousness - Direct Inner Awareness ==
 Poolside, lakeside, oceanside - we are conscious of water before going in
 Aware of emotions such as anger, of memories of friends, of abstract concepts such as fairness, justice, love, etc
 ### == Why do we need sleep? ==
 Physical -  Helps to revive the tired body + build up resistance to infection. Keeps the mind sharp
 Psychologically - It helps us to recover from stress, we need more sleep w/ more stressors
 ### == Gardner Experiment ==
 Randy Gardner - stayed awake 11 days
 Became irritable, could not focus eyes, memory, lapses, & speech difficulties
 Film - discusses image of a frog boiling as compared to chronic insomnia
 ### == Dreams ==
 It is during REM sleep that we have the most vivid dreams
 Can be black and white or color
 REM dreams - clear images and plots that make sense
 NREM dreams - plots are vaguer and images more fleeting
 ### == Freudian View on Dreams ==
 Freud - dreams reveal what you really want
 Reveal one's unconscious wishes, fears, and urges
 Some unconscious wishes are unacceptable, perhaps even painful
 Those most likely would appear in dreams, sometimes as symbols
 ### == Biophyschological Approach - Non Freudian ==
 During sleep - neurons fire in the brain that controls movement and vision
 These neuron bursts are random and the brain tries to make sense of them
 It does so by weaving a story - the dream
 ### == Sleep Apnea ==
 Breathing interruption that occurs during sleep
 Do not start breathing until they sit up and gasp for air
 Do not wake up completely, not aware of what happened during the night
 They often feel tired during the day
 ### == Terms ==
 - Consciousness
 - Preconscious
 - Unconscious
 - Subconscious
 - Nonconscious
 - Altered states
 - Circadian Rhythms
 - EEG
 - Beta/alpha/theta/delta waves
 - Stage 1/2/3/4 sleep
 - REM sleep
 - NREM sleep
 - Gardner experiment
 - Dreams
 - Freudian view on dreams
 - Biopsychological view
 - Sleep disorders
--- a/16/Conditioning.md
+++ b/16/Conditioning.md
@ -0,0 +1,71 @@
 - Unconditioned Stimulus - causes a response that is automatic, not learned
 - Unconditioned Response - Salivation in response to meat is not learned, it is natural
 - Conditioned Response - learned response to a stimulus that was previously natural
 - Conditioned Stimulus - Through repeated association w/the meat, the bell became a learned stimulus
 ## == Reinforcement ==
 Skinner's Box - rat deprived of food kept pressing the lever - 1st time accidental, it soon learned pressing the lever meant food
 Reinforcement - process by which a stimulus increases the chances that a behavior will occur again
 ## == Spontaneous Recovery ==
 Extinguished response is not gone forever
 Organisms sometimes display responses that were extinguished earlier
 Dogs - stopped salivating after bell. However a few days later, when they hear the bell, they salivate again
 Response is a little weaker & there is less saliva
 ## == Flooding - Classical Conditioning ==
 Fear of high places, snakes, claustrophobia
 Person is exposed to the harmless stimulus until fear responses are extinguished
 Look out several times from a six story building until fear ends. Sit in a room of small, non venomous snakes
 ## == Generalization ==
 The act of responding in the same ways to stimuli that seem to be similar, even if the stimuli are not identical
 Pavlov's Circle (CS) was presented with meat (US) - dog salivates at circle
 Any geometric shape close to a circle caused salivation from the dog (generalization)
 ## == Discrimination ==
 Dogs weaker response to figures that looked less like a circle is discrimination
 act of responding differently to stimuli that are not similar to each other
 bear cub is not afraid of all furry creatures (mouse, squirrel, chipmunk, etc)
 ## == Systematic Desensitization ==
 When flooding is too fearful for patients
 Patient is taught relaxation techniques
 They are exposed gradually to the stimulus that they fear while they remain relaxed (shown pictures of snakes)
 ## == Counterconditioning ==
 A pleasant stimulus is paired repeatedly with a fearful one, thus counteracting the fear
 Peter: feared rabbits but loved candy
 Eventually after eating candy, Peter felt comfortable enough to pet the rabbit
 ## == Bell and Pad Method for Bed-Wetting ==
 Teaches children to wake up in response to bladder tension
 Child w/ wetting tendencies - sleeps on a special pad
 When he starts to wet, the water content triggers a bell and the ringing wakes the child up
 Bell in this case - unconditioned stimuli
 ## == Operant Conditioning ==
 People learn to do certain things and not to do others, because of the results
 They learn from the consequences of their actions
 Studying - positive operant behavior = good grades. Not studying - negative operant behavior = bad grades.
 ## == Primary Reinforcers ==
 Reinforcers that function due to the biological makeup of the organism
 Food, water, adequate warmth can all be seen as primary reinforcers
 Do not need to be taught to value these reinforcers
 ## == Ratio Schedule ==
 Desired response is reinforced every time. It is a 1:1 ratio of response to reinforcement.
 If a response must occur five times before it is reinforced, the ratio is 5:1
 For fun: try to guess the ratio schedule of a slot machine, scratch ticket, lottery ticket...
--- a/Psych/Chapter
+++ b/Psych/Chapter
@ -0,0 +1,32 @@
 ## == Episodic Memory ==
 Memory of a specific event, event took place in the person's presence, or the person experienced the event
 Flashbulb memory. Event that is so important it seems like a photograph in every detail
 ## == Semantic Memory ==
 We remember general knowledge such as who the first US president is
 Unlike flashbulb, we don't remember when we first learned that Washington was the first President
 Episodic and semantic are both known as explicit memories. This means that they are clearly stated and defined
 ## == Implicit Memory ==
 Opposite of explicit memory
 Implied or not clearly stated memories are implicit
 Swimming, skipping rope, riding a bike, playing an instrument, driving a car
 ## == Encoding ==
 Translation of information into a form in which2 it can be stored
 When one places information into their memory, they, like computers, encode it
 Encoding for the computer & the human brain, it is the first stage of processing information
 ## == Storage of Memory ==
 Repeating information over and over again to keep from forgetting
 Actors + Actresses: repeat their lines again
 MR: Does not make info meaningful, it is poor for permanent storage
 ## == Maintenance Rehearsal ==
 Repeating information 
--- a/Psych/Chapter
+++ b/Psych/Chapter
@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
 ### == Intelligene vs Achievement ==
 Achievement - refers to knowledge and skills gained from experience
 intelligence - is the ability to learn from experience, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with others
 Think of SAT 1 vs SAT 2 (Aptitude vs Achievement)
 SAT 2's used to be called the Achievements
 ### == Spearman's Two Factor Theory ==
 G - General intelligence: Underlies all our intellectual abilities. It also speaks to our abilities to reason and solve problems
 S - Specific factors account for people's specific abilities
--- a/Psych/Midterms/Study
+++ b/Psych/Midterms/Study
@ -0,0 +1,106 @@
 ### == Founding Fathers ==
 William James
 - Functionalism
 	- "How do we function"
 Wilhelm Wundt
 - Structuralism
 	- Objective
 		- Sight/sound
 	- Subjective
 		- Mental images
 John B Watson
 - Behaviorism
 BF Skinner
 - Reinforcement
 	- When you recieve a reward, you are more likely to repeat a behavior
 Gestalt School
 - Learning by insight rather than repetition
 Sigmund Freud
 - Unconscious motive shape behavior
 ### == Research ==
 Hypothesis
 - An educated guess
 - If/then logic
 Analyzing results
 - A lot of data is needed for analysis
 Conclusion
 - Useful in development of theories
 Replication
 - The ability for an experiment to be repeated with a similar outcome
 Bias
 - Predisposition to a point of view
 Circumstances of replication
 - Sometimes slightly different circumstances skew results
 Surveys
 - People are asked a series of questions
 - Not necessarily accurate
 Populations
 - Whole group you want to study
 Samples
 - One part of the target population
 Random Sample
 - Individuals from target population chosen by chance
 Stratified Sample
 - Subgroups in population are represented proportionally
 Case Study Method
 - In depth investigation of an individual or small group
 Longitudinal Method
 - Select group, then observe group for period of time
 Cross Sectional Method
 - Select sample that includes people of different ages
 Naturalistic Observation
 - Observe people in their natural habitats (home, school, work)
 ### == Nervous System ==
 Frontal Lobe
 - Voluntary movement and languages
 Occipital Lobe
 - Sight
 Parietal Lobe
 - Senses
 Temporal
 - Memory
 Medulla
 - Lowest part of brain stem
 - hearbeat
 Pons
 - Above the medulla
 - Regulates breathing
 Midbrain
 - Eyeball movement
 Thalamus
 - Relay center
 Hypothalamus
 - Body processes